Common Language Infrastructure (CLI )

Partition III
CIL Instruction Set

 

Table of Contents

1                  Scope  3

1.1              Data Types  3

1.1.1          Numeric Data Types  3

1.1.2          Boolean Data Type  3

1.1.3          Object References  3

1.1.4          Runtime Pointer Types  3

1.2              Instruction Variant Table  3

1.2.1          Opcode Encodings  3

1.3              Stack Transition Diagram   3

1.4              English Description  3

1.5              Operand Type Table  3

1.6              Implicit Argument Coercion  3

1.7              Restrictions on CIL Code Sequences  3

1.7.1          The Instruction Stream   3

1.7.2          Valid Branch Targets  3

1.7.3          Exception Ranges  3

1.7.4          Must Provide Maxstack  3

1.7.5          Backward Branch Constraints  3

1.7.6          Branch Verification Constraints  3

1.8              Verifiability  3

1.8.1          Flow Control Restrictions for Verifiable CIL  3

1.9              Metadata Tokens  3

1.10             Exceptions Thrown  3

2                  Prefixes to Instructions  3

2.1              tail. (prefix) – call terminates current method  3

2.2              unaligned. (prefix) – pointer instruction may be unaligned  3

2.3              volatile. (prefix) - pointer reference is volatile  3

3                  Base Instructions  3

3.1              add - add numeric values  3

3.2              add.ovf.<signed> - add integer values with overflow check  3

3.3              and - bitwise AND   3

3.4              arglist - get argument list 3

3.5              beq.<length> – branch on equal 3

3.6              bge.<length> – branch on greater than or equal to  3

3.7              bge.un.<length> – branch on greater than or equal to, unsigned or unordered  3

3.8              bgt.<length> – branch on greater than  3

3.9              bgt.un.<length> – branch on greater than, unsigned or unordered  3

3.10             ble.<length> – branch on less than or equal to  3

3.11             ble.un.<length> – branch on less than or equal to, unsigned or unordered  3

3.12             blt.<length> – branch on less than  3

3.13             blt.un.<length> – branch on less than, unsigned or unordered  3

3.14             bne.un<length> – branch on not equal or unordered  3

3.15             br.<length> – unconditional branch  3

3.16             break – breakpoint instruction  3

3.17             brfalse.<length> - branch on false, null, or zero  3

3.18             brtrue.<length> - branch on non-false or non-null 3

3.19             call – call a method  3

3.20             calli– indirect method call 3

3.21             ceq - compare equal 3

3.22             cgt - compare greater than  3

3.23             cgt.un - compare greater than, unsigned or unordered  3

3.24             ckfinite – check for a finite real number 3

3.25             clt - compare less than  3

3.26             clt.un - compare less than, unsigned or unordered  3

3.27             conv.<to type> - data conversion  3

3.28             conv.ovf.<to type> - data conversion with overflow detection  3

3.29             conv.ovf.<to type>.un – unsigned data conversion with overflow detection  3

3.30             cpblk - copy data from memory to memory  3

3.31             div - divide values  3

3.32             div.un - divide integer values, unsigned  3

3.33             dup – duplicate the top value of the stack  3

3.34             endfilter – end filter clause of SEH   3

3.35             endfinally – end the finally or fault clause of an exception block  3

3.36             initblk - initialize a block of memory to a value  3

3.37             jmp – jump to method  3

3.38             ldarg.<length> - load argument onto the stack  3

3.39             ldarga.<length> - load an argument address  3

3.40             ldc.<type> - load numeric constant 3

3.41             ldftn - load method pointer 3

3.42             ldind.<type> - load value indirect onto the stack  3

3.43             ldloc - load local variable onto the stack  3

3.44             ldloca.<length> - load local variable address  3

3.45             ldnull – load a null pointer 3

3.46             leave.<length> – exit a protected region of code  3

3.47             localloc – allocate space in the local dynamic memory pool 3

3.48             mul - multiply values  3

3.49             mul.ovf.<type> - multiply integer values with overflow check  3

3.50             neg - negate  3

3.51             nop – no operation  3

3.52             not - bitwise complement 3

3.53             or - bitwise OR  3

3.54             pop – remove the top element of the stack  3

3.55             rem - compute remainder 3

3.56             rem.un - compute integer remainder, unsigned  3

3.57             ret – return from method  3

3.58             shl - shift integer left 3

3.59             shr - shift integer right 3

3.60             shr.un - shift integer right, unsigned  3

3.61             starg.<length> - store a value in an argument slot 3

3.62             stind.<type> - store value indirect from stack  3

3.63             stloc - pop value from stack to local variable  3

3.64             sub - subtract numeric values  3

3.65             sub.ovf.<type> - subtract integer values, checking for overflow   3

3.66             switch – table switch on value  3

3.67             xor - bitwise XOR  3

4                  Object Model Instructions  3

4.1              box – convert value type to object reference  3

4.2              callvirt – call a method associated, at runtime, with an object 3

4.3              castclass – cast an object to a class  3

4.4              cpobj - copy a value type  3

4.5              initobj - initialize a value type  3

4.6              isinst – test if an object is an instance of a class or interface  3

4.7              ldelem.<type> – load an element of an array  3

4.8              ldelema – load address of an element of an array  3

4.9              ldfld – load field of an object 3

4.10             ldflda – load field address  3

4.11             ldlen – load the length of an array  3

4.12             ldobj - copy value type to the stack  3

4.13             ldsfld – load static field of a class  3

4.14             ldsflda – load static field address  3

4.15             ldstr – load a literal string  3

4.16             ldtoken - load the runtime representation of a metadata token  3

4.17             ldvirtftn - load a virtual method pointer 3

4.18             mkrefany – push a typed reference on the stack  3

4.19             newarr – create a zero-based, one-dimensional array  3

4.20             newobj – create a new object 3

4.21             refanytype – load the type out of a typed reference  3

4.22             refanyval – load the address out of a typed reference  3

4.23             rethrow – rethrow the current exception  3

4.24             sizeof – load the size in bytes of a value type  3

4.25             stelem.<type> – store an element of an array  3

4.26             stfld – store into a field of an object 3

4.27             stobj - store a value type from the stack into memory  3

4.28             stsfld – store a static field of a class  3

4.29             throw – throw an exception  3

4.30             unbox – Convert boxed value type to its raw form   3

 

1         Scope

This specification is a detailed description of the Common Intermediate Language (CIL) instruction set, part of the specification of the Common Language Infrastructure. Partition I_alink_partitionI describes the architecture of the CLI and provides an overview of a large number of issues relating to the CIL instruction set. That overview is essential to an understanding of the instruction set as described here.

Each instruction description describes a set of related CLI machine instructions. Each instruction definition consists of five parts:

·              A table describing the binary format, assembly language notation and description of each variant of the instruction. See the Instruction Variant Table section.

·              A stack transition diagram that describes the state of the evaluation stack before and after the instruction is executed. See Section 1.3_1.3_StackTransitionDiagram.

·              An English description of the instruction. See the English Description section.

·              A list of exceptions that might be thrown by the instruction. See Partition I_alink_PartitionI for details. There are three exceptions which may be thrown by any instruction and are not listed with the instruction:

ExecutionEngineException indicates that the internal state of the Execution Engine is corrupted and execution cannot continue. [Note: in a system that executes only verifiable code this exception is not thrown.]

StackOverflowException indicates that the hardware stack size has been exceeded. The precise timing of this exception and the conditions under which it occurs are implementation specific. [Note: this exception is unrelated to the maximum stack size described in clause 1.7.4_1.7.4_MustProvideMaxstack. That size relates to the depth of the evaluation stack that is part of the method state described in Partition I_alink_partitionI, while this exception has to do with the implementation of that method state on physical hardware.]

OutOfMemoryException indicates that the available memory space has been exhausted, either because the instruction inherently allocates memory (newobj, newarr) or for an implementation-specific reason (for example, an implementation based on just-in-time compilation to native code may run out of space to store the translated method while executing the first call or callvirt to a given method).

·              A section describing the verifiability conditions associated with the instruction. See Section 1.8_1.8_Verifiability.

In addition, operations that have a numeric operand also specify an operand type table that describes how they operate based on the type of the operand. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable.

Note that not all instructions are included in all CLI Profiles. See Partition IV_alink_partitionIV for details.

1.1         Data Types

While the Common Type System (CTS) defines a rich type system and the Common Language Specification (CLS) specifies a subset that can be used for language interoperability, the CLI itself deals with a much simpler set of types. These types, collectively known as the “basic CLI types,” are:

·              A subset of the full numeric types (int32, int64, native int, and F)

·              Object references (O) without distinction between the type of object referenced

·              Pointer types (native unsigned  int and &) without distinction as to the type pointed to

Note that object references and pointer types may be assigned the value null. This is defined throughout the CLI to be zero (a bit pattern of all bits zero)

1.1.1         Numeric Data Types

·              The CLI only operates on the numeric types int32 (4 byte signed integers), int64 (8 byte signed integers), native int (native size integers), and F (native size floating-point numbers). The CIL instruction set, however, allows additional data types to be implemented:

·              Short integers. The evaluation stack only holds 4 or 8 byte integers, but other locations (arguments, local variables, statics, array elements, fields) may hold 1 or 2 byte integers. Loading from these locations onto the stack either zero-extends (ldind.u*, ldelem.u*, etc.) or sign-extends (ldind.i*, ldelem.i*, etc.) to a 4 byte value. Storing to integers (stind.u1, stelem.i2, etc.) truncates. Use the conv.ovf.* instructions to detect when this truncation results in a value that doesn’t correctly represent the original value.

Convert instructions that yield short integer values actually leave an int32 (32-bit) value on the stack, but it is guaranteed that only the low bits have meaning (i.e. the more significant bits are all zero for the unsigned conversions or a sign extension for the signed conversions). To correctly simulate the full set of short integer operations a conversion to the short form is required before the div, rem, shr, comparison and conditional branch instructions.

In addition to the explicit conversion instructions there are four cases where the CLI handles short integers in a special way:

1.             Assignment to a local (stloc) or argument (starg) whose type is declared to be a short integer type automatically truncates to the size specified for the local or argument.

2.             Loading from a local (ldloc) or argument (ldarg) whose type is declared to be a short signed integer type automatically sign extends.

3.             Calling a procedure with an argument that is a short integer type is equivalent to assignment to the argument value, so it truncates.

4.             Returning a value from a method whose return type is a short integer is modeled as storing into a short integer within the called procedure (i.e. the CLI automatically truncates) and then loading from a short integer within the calling procedure (i.e. the CLI automatically zero- or sign-extends).

In the last two cases it is up to the native calling convention to determine whether values are actually truncated or extended, as well as whether this is done in the called procedure or the calling procedure. The CIL instruction sequence is unaffected and it is as though the CIL sequence included an appropriate conv instruction.

·              4 byte integers. The shortest value actually stored on the stack is a 4-byte integer. These can be converted to 8-byte integers or native-size integers using conv.* instructions. Native-size integers can be converted to 4-byte integers, but doing so is not portable across architectures. The conv.i4 and conv.u4 can be used for this conversion if the excess significant bits should be ignored; the conv.ovf.i4 and conv.ovf.u4 instructions can be used to detect the loss of information. Arithmetic operations allow 4-byte integers to be combined with native size integers, resulting in native size integers. 4-byte integers may not be directly combined with 8-byte integers (they must be converted to 8-byte integers first).

·              Native size integers. Native size integers can be combined with 4-byte integers using any of the normal arithmetic instructions, and the result will be a native-size integer. Native size integers must be explicitly converted to 8-byte integers before they can be combined with 8-byte integers.

·              8 byte integers. Supporting 8 byte integers on 32 bit hardware may be expensive, whereas 32 bit arithmetic is available and efficient on current 64 bit hardware. For this reason, numeric instructions allow int32 and I data types to be intermixed (yielding the largest type used as input), but these types cannot be combined with int64s. Instead, an native int or int32 must be explicitly converted to int64 before it can be combined with an int64.

·              Unsigned integers. Special instructions are used to interpret integers on the stack as though they were unsigned, rather than tagging the stack locations as being unsigned.

·              Floating-point numbers. See also Partition I, Handling of Floating Point Datatypes_alink_PartitionI#FloatingPointDatatypes. Storage locations for floating-point numbers (statics, array elements, and fields of classes) are of fixed size. The supported storage sizes are float32 and float64. Everywhere else (on the evaluation stack, as arguments, as return types, and as local variables) floating-point numbers are represented using an internal floating-point type. In each such instance, the nominal type of the variable or expression is either float32 or float64, but its value may be represented internally with additional range and/or precision. The size of the internal floating-point representation is implementation-dependent, may vary, and shall have precision at least as great as that of the variable or expression being represented. An implicit widening conversion to the internal representation from float32 or float64 is performed when those types are loaded from storage. The internal representation is typically the natural size for the hardware, or as required for efficient implementation of an operation. The internal representation shall have the following characteristics:

o             The internal representation shall have precision and range greater than or equal to the nominal type.

o             Conversions to and from the internal representation shall preserve value. [Note: This implies that an implicit widening conversion from float32 (or float64) to the internal representation, followed by an explicit conversion from the internal representation to float32 (or float64), will result in a value that is identical to the original float32 (or float64) value.]

When a floating-point value whose internal representation has greater range and/or precision than its nominal type is put in a storage location, it is automatically coerced to the type of the storage location. This may involve a loss of precision or the creation of an out-of-range value (NaN, +infinity, or ‑infinity). However, the value may be retained in the internal representation for future use, if it is reloaded from the storage location without having been modified. It is the responsibility of the compiler to ensure that the memory location is still valid at the time of a subsequent load, taking into account the effects of aliasing and other execution threads (see memory model section). This freedom to carry extra precision is not permitted, however, following the execution of an explicit conversion (conv.r4 or conv.r8), at which time the internal representation must be exactly representable in the associated type.

1.1.2         Boolean Data Type

A CLI Boolean type occupies one byte in memory. A bit pattern of all zeroes denotes a value of false. A bit pattern with any bit set (analogous to a non-zero integer) denotes a value of true.

1.1.3         Object References

Object references (type O) are completely opaque. There are no arithmetic instructions that allow object references as operands, and the only comparison operations permitted are equality (and inequality) between two object references. There are no conversion operations defined on object references. Object references are created by certain CIL object instructions (notably newobj and newarr). Object references can be passed as arguments, stored as local variables, returned as values, and stored in arrays and as fields of objects.

1.1.4         Runtime Pointer Types

There are two kinds of pointers: unmanaged pointers and managed pointers. For pointers into the same array or object (see Partition I_alink_partitionI), the following arithmetic operations are defined:

·              Adding an integer to a pointer, where the integer is interpreted as a number of bytes, results in a pointer of the same kind.

·              Subtracting an integer (number of bytes) from a pointer results in a pointer of the same kind. Note that subtracting a pointer from an integer is not permitted.

·              Two pointers, regardless of kind, can be subtracted from one another, producing an integer that specifies the number of bytes between the addresses they reference.

None of these operations is allowed in verifiable code.

It is important to understand the impact on the garbage collector of using arithmetic on the different kinds of pointers. Since unmanaged pointers must never reference memory that is controlled by the garbage collector, performing arithmetic on them can endanger the memory safety of the system (hence it is not verifiable) but since they are not reported to the garbage collector there is no impact on its operation.

Managed pointers, however, are reported to the garbage collector. As part of garbage collection both the contents of the location to which they point and the pointer itself can be modified. The garbage collector will ignore managed pointers if they point into memory that is not under its control (the evaluation stack, the call stack, static memory, or memory under the control of another allocator). If, however, a managed pointer refers to memory controlled by the garbage collector it must point to either a field of an object, an element of an array, or the address of the element just past the end of an array. If address arithmetic is used to create a managed pointer that refers to any other location (an object header or a gap in the allocated memory) the garbage collector’s operation is unspecified.

1.1.4.1          Unmanaged Pointers

Unmanaged pointers are the traditional pointers used in languages like C and C++. There are no restrictions on their use, although for the most part they result in code that cannot be verified. While it is perfectly legal to mark locations that contain unmanaged pointers as though they were unsigned integers (and this is, in fact, how they are treated by the CLI), it is often better to mark them as unmanaged pointers to a specific type of data. This is done by using ELEMENT_TYPE_PTR in a signature for a return value, local variable or an argument or by using a pointer type for a field or array element.

Unmanaged pointers are not reported to the garbage collector and can be used in any way that an integer can be used.

·              Unmanaged pointers should be treated as unsigned (i.e. use conv.ovf.u rather than conv.ovf.i, etc.).

·              Verifiable code cannot use unmanaged pointers to reference memory.

·              Unverified code can pass an unmanaged pointer to a method that expects a managed pointer. This is safe only if one of the following is true:

a.            The unmanaged pointer refers to memory that is not in memory managed by the garbage collector

b.            The unmanaged pointer refers to a field within an object

c.            The unmanaged pointer refers to an element within an array

d.            The unmanaged pointer refers to the location where the element following the last element in an array would be located

1.1.4.2          Managed Pointers (type &)

Managed pointers (&) may point to a local variable, a method argument, a field of an object, a field of a value type, an element of an array, or the address where an element just past the end of an array would be stored (for pointer indexes into managed arrays). Managed pointers cannot be null. (They must be reported to the garbage collector, even if they do not point to managed memory)

Managed pointers are specified by using ELEMENT_TYPE_BYREF in a signature for a return value, local variable or an argument or by using a by-ref type for a field or array element.

·              Managed pointers can be passed as arguments and stored in local variables.

·              If you pass a parameter by reference, the corresponding argument is a managed pointer.

·              Managed pointers cannot be stored in static variables, array elements, or fields of objects or value types.

·              Managed pointers are not interchangeable with object references.

·              A managed pointer cannot point to another managed pointer, but it can point to an object reference or a value type.

·              Managed pointers that do not point to managed memory can be converted (using conv.u or conv.ovf.u) into unmanaged pointers, but this is not verifiable.

·              Unverified code that erroneously converts a managed pointer into an unmanaged pointer can seriously compromise the integrity of the CLI. This conversion is safe if any of the following is known to be true:

a.            the managed pointer does not point into the garbage collector’s memory area

b.            the memory referred to has been pinned for the entire time that the unmanaged pointer is in use

c.            a garbage collection cannot occur while the unmanaged pointer is in use

d.            the garbage collector for the given implementation of the CLI is known to not move the referenced memory

1.2         Instruction Variant Table

In Chapter 3_3_BaseInstructions an Instruction Variant Table is presented for each instruction. It describes each variant of the instructions. The “Format” column of the table lists the opcode for the instruction variant, along with any arguments that follow the instruction in the instruction stream. For example:

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 0A <unsigned int16>	Ldarga argNum	fetch the address of argument argNum.
0F <unsigned int8>	Ldarga.s argNum	fetch the address of argument argNum, short form

 

The first one or two hex numbers in the “Format” column show how this instruction is encoded (its “opcode”). So, the ldarga instruction is encoded as a byte holding FE, followed by another holding 0A. Italicized type names represent numbers that should follow in the instruction stream. In this example a 2-byte quantity that is to be treated as an unsigned integer directly follows the FE 0A opcode.

Any of the fixed size built-in types (int8, unsigned int8, int16, unsigned int16, int32, unsigned int32, int64, unsigned in64, float32, and float64) can appear in format descriptions. These types define the number of bytes for the argument and how it should be interpreted (signed, unsigned or floating-point). In addition, a metadata token can appear, indicated as <T>. Tokens are encoded as 4-byte integers. All argument numbers are encoded least-significant-byte-at-smallest-address (a pattern commonly termed “little-endian”). Bytes for instruction opcodes and arguments are packed as tightly as possible (no alignment padding is done).

The assembly format column defines an assembly code mnemonic for each instruction variant. For those instructions that have instruction stream arguments, this column also assigns names to each of the arguments to the instruction. For each instruction argument, there is a name in the assembly format. These names are used later in the instruction description.

1.2.1         Opcode Encodings

CIL opcodes are one or more bytes long; they may be followed by zero or more operand bytes. All opcodes whose first byte lies in the ranges 0x00 through 0xEF, or 0xFC through 0xFF are reserved for standardization. Opcodes whose first byte lies in the range 0xF0 through 0xFB inclusive, are available for experimental purposes. The use of experimental opcodes in any method renders the method invalid and hence unverifiable.

The currently defined encodings are specified in Table 1: Opcode Encodings_Table1_OpcodeEncodings.

 

Table 1: Opcode Encodings

1.3         Stack Transition Diagram

The stack transition diagram displays the state of the evaluation stack before and after the instruction is executed. Below is a typical stack transition diagram.

…, value1, value2 à …, result

This diagram indicates that the stack must have at least two elements on it, and in the definition the topmost value (“top of stack” or “most recently pushed”) will be called value2 and the value underneath (pushed prior to value2) will be called value1. (In diagrams like this, the stack grows to the right, along the page). The instruction removes these values from the stack and replaces them by another value, called result in the description.

1.4         English Description

The English description describes any details about the instructions that are not immediately apparent once the format and stack transition have been described.

1.5         Operand Type Table

Many CIL operations take numeric operands on the stack. These operations fall into several categories, depending on how they deal with the types of the operands. The following tables summarize the valid types of operand types and the type of the result. Notice that the type referred to here is the type as tracked by the CLI rather than the more detailed types used by tools such as CIL verification. The types tracked by the CLI are: int32, int64, native int, F, O, and &.

A op B (used for add, div, mul, rem, and sub). The table below shows the result type, for each possible combination of oparand types. Boxes holding simply a result type, apply to all five instructions. Boxes marked û indicate an invalid CIL instruction. Shaded boxes indicate a CIL instruction that is not verifiable. Boxes with a list of instructions are valid only for those instructions.

Table 2: Binary Numeric Operations

A's Type	B's Type
	int32	int64	native int	F	&	O
int32	int32	û	native int	û	& (add)	û
int64	û	int64	û	û	û	û
native int	native int	û	native int	û	& (add)	û
F	û	û	û	F	û	û
&	& (add, sub)	û	& (add, sub)	û	native int (sub)	û
O	û	û	û	û	û	û

 

Used for the neg instruction. Boxes marked û indicate an invalid CIL instruction. All valid uses of this instruction are verifiable.

Table 3: Unary Numeric Operations

Operand Type	int32	int64	native int	F	&	O
Result Type	int32	int64	native int	F	û	û

 

These return a boolean value or branch based on the top two values on the stack. Used for beq, beq.s, bge, bge.s, bge.un, bge.un.s, bgt, bgt.s, bgt.un, bgt.un.s, ble, ble.s, ble.un, ble.un.s, blt, blt.s, blt.un, blt.un.s, bne.un, bne.un.s, ceq, cgt, cgt.un, clt, clt.un. Boxes marked ü indicate that all instructions are valid for that combination of operand types. Boxes marked û indicate invalid CIL sequences. Shaded boxes boxes indicate a CIL instruction that is not verifiable. Boxes with a list of instructions are valid only for those instructions.

Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations

	int32	int64	native int	F	&	O
int32	ü	û	ü	û	û	û
int64	û	ü	û	û	û	û
native int	ü	û	ü	û	Beq[.s], bne.un[.s], ceq	û
F	û	û	û	ü	û	û
&	û	û	beq[.s], bne.un[.s], ceq	û	ü1	û
O	û	û	û	û	û	beq[.s], bne.un[.s], ceq2

 

1.             Except for beq, bne.un (or short versions) or ceq these combinations make sense if both operands are known to be pointers to elements of the same array. However, there is no security issue for a CLI that does not check this constraint

2.             cgt.un is allowed and verifiable on ObjectRefs (O). This is commonly used when comparing an ObjectRef with null (there is no “compare-not-equal” instruction, which would otherwise be a more obvious solution)

These operate only on integer types. Used for and, div.un, not, or, rem.un, xor. The div.un and rem.un instructions treat their arguments as unsigned integers and produce the bit pattern corresponding to the unsigned result. As described in the CLI Specification, however, the CLI makes no distinction between signed and unsigned integers on the stack. The not instruction is unary and returns the same type as the input. The shl and shr instructions return the same type as their first operand and their second operand must be of type native unsigned int. Boxes marked û indicate invalid CIL sequences. All other boxes denote verifiable combinations of operands.

Table 5: Integer Operations

	int32	int64	native int	F	&	O
int32	int32	û	native int	û	û	û
int64	û	int64	û	û	û	û
native int	native int	û	native int	û	û	û
F	û	û	û	û	û	û
&	û	û	û	û	û	û
O	û	û	û	û	û	û

 

Below are the legal combinations of operands and result for the shift instructions: shl, shr, shr_un. Boxes marked û indicate invalid CIL sequences. All other boxes denote verifiable combinations of operand. If the “Shift-By” operand is larger than the width of the “To-Be-Shifted” operand, then the results are implementation-defined. (eg shift an int32 integer left by 37 bits)

Table 6 : Shift Operations

		Shift-By
		int32	int64	native int	F	&	O
To Be Shifted	int32	int32	û	int32	û	û	û
	int64	int64	û	int64	û	û	û
	native int	native int	û	native int	û	û	û
	F	û	û	û	û	û	û
	&	û	û	û	û	û	û
	O	û	û	û	û	û	û

 

These operations generate an exception if the result cannot be represented in the target data type. Used for add.ovf, add.ovf.un, mul.ovf, mul.ovf.un, sub.ovf, sub.ovf.un The shaded uses are not verifiable, while boxes marked û indicate invalid CIL sequences.

Table 7: Overflow Arithmetic Operations

	int32	int64	native int	F	&	O
int32	int32	û	native int	û	& add.ovf.un	û
int64	û	int64	û	û	û	û
native int	native int	û	native int	û	& add.ovf.un	û
F	û	û	û	û	û	û
&	& add.ovf.un, sub.ovf.un	û	& add.ovf.un, sub.ovf.un	û	native int sub.ovf.un	û
O	û	û	û	û	û	û

 

These operations convert the top item on the evaluation stack from one numeric type to another. The result type is guaranteed to be representable as the data type specified as part of the operation (i.e. the conv.u2 instruction returns a value that can be stored in a unsigned int16). The stack, however, can only store values that are a minimum of 4 bytes wide. Used for the conv.<to type>, conv.ovf.<to type>, and conv.ovf.<to type>.un instructions. The shaded uses are not verifiable, while boxes marked û indicate invalid CIL sequences.

Table 8: Conversion Operations

Convert-To	Input (from evaluation stack)
	int32	int64	native int	F	&	O
int8 unsigned int8 int16 unsigned int16	Truncate1	Truncate1	Truncate1	Truncate to zero2	û	û
int32 unsigned int32	Nop	Truncate1	Truncate1	Truncate to zero2	û	û
int64	Sign extend	Nop	Sign extend	Truncate to zero2	û	û
unsigned int64	Zero extend	Nop	Zero extend	Truncate to zero2	Stop GC tracking	û
native int	Sign extend	Truncate1	Nop	Truncate to zero2	û	û
native unsigned int	Zero extend	Truncate1	Nop	Truncate to zero2	Stop GC tracking	û
All Float Types	To Float	To Float	To Float	Change precision3	û	û

 

1.             “Truncate” means that the number is truncated to the desired size; ie, the most significant bytes of the input value are simply ignored. If the result is narrower than the minimum stack width of 4 bytes, then this result is zero extended (if the target type is unsigned) or sign-extended (if the target type is signed). Thus, converting the value 0x1234 ABCD from the evaluation stack to an 8-bit datum yields the result 0xCD; if the target type were int8, this is sign-extended to give 0xFFFF FFCD; if, instead, the target type were unsigned int8, this is zero-extended to give 0x0000 00CD.

2.             “Trunc to 0” means that the floating-point number will be converted to an integer by truncation toward zero. Thus 1.1 is converted to 1 and –1.1 is converted to –1.

3.             Converts from the current precision available on the evaluation stack to the precision specified by the instruction. If the stack has more precision than the output size the conversion is performed using the IEC 60559:1989 “round to nearest” mode to compute the low order bit of the result.

4.             “Stop GC Tracking” means that, following the conversion, the item’s value will not be reported to subsequent garbage-collection operations (and therefore will not be updated by such operations)

1.6         Implicit Argument Coercion

While the CLI operates only on 6 types (int32, native int, int64, F, O, and &) the metadata supplies a much richer model for parameters of methods. When about to call a method, the CLI performs implicit type conversions, detailed in the following table. (Conceptually, it inserts the appropriate conv.* instruction into the CIL stream, which may result in an information loss through truncation or rounding) This implicit conversion occurs for boxes marked ü. Shaded boxes are not verifiable. Boxes marked û indicate invalid CIL sequences. (A compiler is of course free to emit explicit conv.* or conv.*.ovf instructions to achieve any desired effect)

Table 9: Signature Matching

Type In Signature	Stack Parameter
	int32	native int	int64	F	&	O
int8	ü	ü	û	û	û	û
unsigned int8	ü	ü	û	û	û	û
int16	ü	ü	û	û	û	û
unsigned int16	ü	ü	û	û	û	û
int32	ü	ü	û	û	û	û
unsigned int32	ü	ü	û	û	û	û
int64	û	û	ü	û	û	û
unsigned int64	û	û	ü	û	û	û
native int	ü Sign extend	ü	û	û	û	û
native unsigned int	ü Zero extend	ü Zero extend	û	û	û	û
float32	û	û	û	Note4	û	û
float64	û	û	û	Note4	û	û
Class	û	û	û	û	û	ü
Value Type (Note2)	Note1	Note1	Note1	Note1	û	û
By-Ref ( & )	û	ü Start GC tracking	û	û	ü	û
Ref Any (Note3)	û	û	û	û	û	û

 

1.             Passing a built-in type to a parameter that is required to be a value type is not allowed.

2.             The CLI’s stack can contain a value type. These may only be passed if the particular value type on the stack exactly matches the class required by the corresponding parameter.

3.             There are special instructions to construct and pass a Ref Any.

4.             The CLI is permitted to pass floating point arguments using its internal F type, see clause 1.1.1_1.1.1_NumericDataTypes. CIL generators may, of course, include an explicit conv.r4, conv.r4.ovf, or similar instruction.

Further notes concerning this table:

·              On a 32-bit machine passing a native int argument to a unsigned int32 parameter involves no conversion. On a 64-bit machine it is implicitly converted.

·               “Start GC Tracking” means that, following the implicit conversion, the item’s value will be reported to any subsequent garbage-collection operations, and perhaps changed as a result of the item pointed-to being relocated in the heap.

1.7         Restrictions on CIL Code Sequences

As well as detailed restrictions on CIL code sequences to ensure:

·              Valid CIL

·              Verifiable CIL

there are a few further restrictions, imposed to make it easier to construct a simple CIL-to-native-code compiler.  This section specifies the general restrictions that apply in addition to this listed for individual instructions.

1.7.1         The Instruction Stream

The implementation of a method is provided by a contiguous block of CIL instructions, encoded as specified below. The address of the instruction block for a method as well as its length is specified in the file format (see Partition II_alink_partitionII, Common Intermediate Language Physical Layout). The first instruction is at the first byte (lowest address) of the instruction block.

Instructions are variable in size. The size of each instruction can be determined (decoded) from the content of the instruction bytes themselves. The size of and ordering of the bytes within an instruction is specified by each instruction definition. Instructions follow each other without padding in a stream of bytes that is both alignment and byte-order insensitive.

Each instruction occupies an exact number of bytes, and until the end of the instruction block, the next instruction begins immediately at the next byte. It is invalid for the instruction block (as specified by the block’s length) to end without forming a complete last instruction.

Instruction prefixes extend the length of an instruction without introducing a new instruction; an instruction having one or more prefixes introduces only one instruction that begins at the first byte of the first instruction prefix.

1.7.2         Valid Branch Targets

The set of addresses composed of the first byte of each instruction identified in the instruction stream defines the only valid instruction targets. Instruction targets include branch targets as specified in branch instructions, targets specified in exception tables such as protected ranges (see Partition I_alink_partitionI and Partition II_alink_partitionII), filter, and handler targets.

Branch instructions specify branch targets as either a one-byte or four-byte signed relative offset; the size of the offset is differentiated by the opcode of the instruction. The offset is defined as being relative to the byte following the branch instruction. [Note: Thus, an offset value of zero targets the immediately following instruction.]

The value of a one-byte offset is computed by interpreting that byte as a signed 8-bit integer. The value of a four-byte offset is can be computed by concatenating the bytes into a signed integer in the following manner: the byte of lowest address forms the least significant byte, and the byte with highest address forms the most significant byte of the integer. [Note: This representation is often called “a signed integer in little-endian byte-order”.]

1.7.3          Exception Ranges

Exception tables describe ranges of instructions that are protected by catch, fault, or finally handlers (see Partition I_alink_partitionI and Partition II_alink_partitionII). The starting address of a protected block, filter clause, or handler shall be a valid branch target as specified in clause 1.7.2_1.7.2_ValidBranchTargets. It is invalid for a protected block, filter clause, or handler to end without forming a complete last instruction.

1.7.4         Must Provide Maxstack

Every method specifies a maximum number of items that can be pushed onto the CIL Evaluation. The value is stored in the IMAGE_COR_ILMETHOD structure that precedes the CIL body of each method. A method that specifies a maximum number of items less than the amount required by a static analysis of the method (using a traditional control flow graph without analysis of the data) is invalid (hence also unverifiable) and need not be supported by a conforming implementation of the CLI.

 

1.7.5         Backward Branch Constraints

It must be possible, with a single forward-pass through the CIL instruction stream for any method, to infer the exact state of the evaluation stack at every instruction (where by “state” we mean the number and type of each item on the evaluation stack).

In particular, if that single-pass analysis arrives at an instruction, call it location X, that immediately follows an unconditional branch, and where X is not the target of an earlier branch instruction, then the state of the evaluation stack at X, clearly, cannot be derived from existing information. In this case, the CLI demands that the evaluation stack at X be empty.

Following on from this rule, it would clearly be invalid CIL if a later branch instruction to X were to have a non-empty evaluation stack

See the following sections for further information:

·              Exceptions: Partition I_alink_partitionI

·              Verification conditions for branch instructions: Chapter 3_3_BaseInstructions

·              The tail. prefix: Section 3.19

1.7.6         Branch Verification Constraints

The target of all branch instruction must be a valid branch target (see clause 1.7.2_1.7.2_ValidBranchTargets) within the method holding that branch instruction.

1.8         Verifiability

Memory safety is a property that ensures programs running in the same address space are correctly isolated from one another (see Partition I_alink_partitionI). Thus, it is desirable to test whether programs are memory safe prior to running them. Unfortunately, it is provably impossible to do this with 100% accuracy. Instead, the CLI can test a stronger restriction, called verifiability. Every program that is verified is memory safe, but some programs that are not verifiable are still memory safe.

It is perfectly acceptable to generate CIL code that is not verifiable, but which is known to be memory safe by the compiler writer. Thus, conforming CIL may not be verifiable, even though the producing compiler may know that it is memory safe. Several important uses of CIL instructions are not verifiable, such as the pointer arithmetic versions of add that are required for the faithful and efficient compilation of C programs. For non-verifiable code, memory safety is the responsibility of the application programmer.

CIL contains a verifiable subset. The Verifiability description gives details of the conditions under which a use of an instruction falls within the verifiable subset of CIL. Verification tracks the types of values in much finer detail than is required for the basic functioning of the CLI, because it is checking that a CIL code sequence respects not only the basic rules of the CLI with respect to the safety of garbage collection, but also the typing rules of the CTS. This helps to guarantee the sound operation of the entire CLI.

The verifiability section of each operation description specifies requirements both for correct CIL generation and for verification. Correct CIL generation always requires guaranteeing that the top items on the stack correspond to the types shown in the stack transition diagram. The verifiability section specifies only requirements for correct CIL generation that are not captured in that diagram. Verification tests both the requirements for correct CIL generation and the specific verification conditions that are described with the instruction. The operation of CIL sequences that do not meet the CIL correctness requirements is unspecified. The operation of CIL sequences that meet the correctness requirements but are not verifiable may violate type safety and hence may violate security or memory access constraints.

1.8.1         Flow Control Restrictions for Verifiable CIL

This section specifies a verification algorithm that, combined with information on individual CIL instructions (see Chapter 3_3_BaseInstructions) and metadata validation (see Partition II_alink_partitionII), guarantees memory integrity.

The algorithm specified here creates a minimum level for all compliant implementations of the CLI in the sense that any program that is considered verifiable by this algorithm shall be considered verifiable and run correctly on all compliant implementations of the CLI.

The CLI provides a security permission (see Partition IV_alink_partitionIV) that controls whether or not the CLI shall run programs that may violate memory safety. Any program that is verifiable according to this specification does not violate memory safety, and a conforming implementation of the CLI shall run such programs. The implementation may also run other programs provided it is able to show they do not violate memory safety (typically because they use a verification algorithm that makes use of specific knowledge about the implementation).

Only valid programs shall be verifiable. For ease of explanation, the verification algorithm described here assumes that the program is valid and does not explicitly call for tests of all validity conditions. Validity conditions are specified on a per-CIL instruction basis (see Chapter 3_3_BaseInstructions), and on the overall file format in Partition II_alink_PartitionII.

1.8.1.1          Verification Algorithm

The verification algorithm shall attempt to associate a valid stack state with every CIL instruction. The stack state specifies the number of slots on the CIL stack at that point in the code and for each slot a required type that must be present in that slot. The initial stack state is empty (there are no items on the stack).

Verification assumes that the CLI zeroes all memory other than the evaluation stack before it is made visible to programs. A conforming implementation of the CLI shall provide this observable behavior. Furthermore, verifiable methods shall have the “zero initialize” bit set, see Partition II (Flags for Method Headers)_alink_paritionII. If this bit is not set, then a CLI may throw a Verification exception at any point where a local variable is accessed, and where the assembly containing that method has not been granted SecurityPermission.SkipVerification

 

The verification algorithm shall simulate all possible control flow paths through the code and ensures that a legal stack state exists for every reachable CIL instruction. The verification algorithm does not take advantage of any data values during its simulation (e.g. it does not perform constant propagation), but uses only type assignments. Details of the type system used for verification and the algorithm used to merge stack states are provided in clause 1.8.1.3. The verification algorithm terminates as follows:

1.             Successfully, when all control paths have been simulated.

2.             Unsuccessfully when it is not possible to compute a valid stack state for a particular CIL instruction.

3.             Unsuccessfully when additional tests specified in this clause fail.

There is a control flow path from every instruction to the subsequent instruction, with the exception of the unconditional branch instructions, throw, rethrow, and ret. Finally, there is a control flow path from each branch instruction (conditional or unconditional) to the branch target (targets, plural, for the switch instruction).

Verification simulates the operation of each CIL instruction to compute the new stack state, and any type mismatch between the specified conditions on the stack state (see Chapter 3_3_BaseInstructions) and the simulated stack state shall cause the verification algorithm to fail. (Note that verification simulates only the effect on the stack state: it does not perform the actual computation). The algorithm shall also fail if there is an existing stack state at the next instruction address (for conditional branches or instructions within a try block there may be more than one such address) that cannot be merged with the stack state just computed. For rules of this merge operation, see clause 1.8.1.3.

1.8.1.2          Verification Type System

The verification algorithm compresses types that are logically equivalent, since they cannot lead to memory safety violations. The types used by the verification algorithm are specified in clause 1.8.1.2.1, the type compatibility rules are specified in clause 1.8.1.2.2, and the rules for merging stack states are in clause 1.8.1.3.

1.8.1.2.1          Verification Types

The following table specifies the mapping of types used in the CLI and those used in verification. Notice that verification compresses the CLI types to a smaller set that maintains information about the size of those types in memory, but then compresses these again to represent the fact that the CLI stack expands 1, 2 and 4 byte built-in types into 4-byte types on the stack. Similarly, verification treats floating-point numbers on the stack as 64-bit quantities regardless of the actual representation.

Arrays are objects, but with special compatibility rules.

There is a special encoding for null that represents an object known to be the null value, hence with indeterminate actual type.

In the following table, “CLI Type” is the type as it is described in metadata. The “Verification Type” is a corresponding type used for type compatibility rules in verification (see clause 1.8.1.2.2) when considering the types of local variables, incoming arguments, and formal parameters on methods being called. The column “Verification Type (in stack state)” is used to simulate instructions that load data onto the stack, and shows the types that are actually maintained in the stack state information of the verification algorithm. The column “Managed Pointer to Type” shows the type tracked for managed pointers.

CLI Type	Verification Type	Verification Type (in stack state)	Managed Pointer to Type
Int8, unsigned int8, bool	int8	int32	& int8
Int16, unsigned int16, char	int16	int32	& int16
int32, unsigned int32	int32	int32	& int32
Int64, unsigned int64	int64	int64	& int64
native int, native unsigned int	native int	native int	& native int
float32	Float32	float64	& float32
float64	Float64	float64	& float64
Any value type	Same type	Same type	& Same type
Any object type	Same type	Same type	& Same type
Method pointer	Same type	Same type	Not valid

 

A method can be defined as returning a managed pointer, but calls upon such methods are not verifiable.

1.8.1.2.2          Verification Type Compatibility

The following rules define type compatibility. We use S and T to denote verification types, and the notation “S := T” to indicate that the verification type T can be used wherever the verification type S can be used, while “S !:= T” indicates that T cannot be used where S is expected. These are the verification type compatibility (see Partition I_alink_partitionI) rules. We use T[] to denote an array (of any rank) whose elements are of type T, and T& to denote a managed pointer to type T.

1.             [:= is reflexive] For all verification types S, S := S

2.             [:= is transitive] For all verification types S, T, and U if S := T and T := U, then S := U.

3.             S := T if S is the base class of T or an interface implemented by T and T is not a value type.

4.             S := T if S and T are both interfaces and the implementation of T requires the implementation of S

5.             S := null if S is an object type or an interface

6.             S[] := T[] if S := T and the arrays are either both vectors (zero-based, rank one) or neither is a vector and both have the same rank.

7.             If S and T are method pointers, then S := T if the signatures (return types, parameter types, calling convention, and any custom attributes or custom modifiers) are the same.

8.             Otherwise S !:= T

1.8.1.3          Merging Stack States

As the verification algorithm simulates all control flow paths it shall merge the simulated stack state with any existing stack state at the next CIL instruction in the flow. If there is no existing stack state, the simulated stack state is stored for future use. Otherwise the merge shall be computed as follows and stored to replace the existing stack state for the CIL instruction. If the merge fails, the verification algorithm shall fail.

The merge shall be computed by comparing the number of slots in each stack state. If they differ, the merge shall fail. If they match, then the overall merge shall be computed by merging the states slot-by-slot as follows. Let T be the type from the slot on the newly computed state and S be the type from the corresponding slot on the previously stored state. The merged type, U, shall be computed as follows (recall that S := T is the compatibility function defined in clause 1.8.1.2.2):

1.             if S := T then U=S

2.             Otherwise if T := S then U=T

3.             Otherwise, if S and T are both object types, then let V be the closest common supertype of S and T then U=V.

4.             Otherwise, the merge shall fail.

1.8.1.4          Class and Object Initialization Rules

The VES ensures that all statics are initially zeroed (i.e. built-in types are 0 or false, object references are null), hence the verification algorithm does not test for definite assignment to statics.

An object constructor shall not return unless a constructor for the base class or a different construct for the object’s class has been called on the newly constructed object. The verification algorithm shall treat the this pointer as uninitialized unless the base class constructor has been called. No operations can be performed on an uninitialized this except for storing into and loading from the object’s fields.

1.8.1.5          Delegate Constructors

The verification algorithm shall require that one of the following code sequences is used for constructing delegates; no other code sequence in verifiable code shall contain a newobj instruction for a delegate type. There shall be only one instance constructor method for a Delegate (overloading is not allowed)

The verification algorithm shall fail if a branch target is within these instruction sequences (other than at the start of the sequence).

1.8.1.5.1          Delegating via Virtual Dispatch

The following CIL instruction sequence shall be used or the verification algorithm shall fail. The sequence begins with an object on the stack.

dup

ldvirtftn mthd  ; Method shall be on the class of the object,

          ; or one of its parent classes, or an interface

          ; implemented by the object

newobj delegateclass::.ctor(object, native int)

1.8.1.5.2          Delegating via Instance Dispatch

The following CIL instruction sequence shall be used or the verification algorithm shall fail. The sequence begins with either null or an object on the stack.

ldftn mthd             ; Method shall either be a static method or

          ; a method on the class of the object on the stack or

          ; one of the object’s parent classes

newobj delegateclass::.ctor(object, native int)

1.9         Metadata Tokens

Many CIL instructions are followed by a "metadata token". This is a 4-byte value, that specifies a row in a metadata table, or a starting byte offset in the User String heap. The most-significant byte of the token specifies the table or heap. For example, a value of 0x02 specifies the TypeDef table; a value of 0x70 specifies the User String heap. The value corresponds to the number assigned to that metadata table (see Partition II_alink_partitionII for the full list of tables) or to 0x70 for the User String heap. The least-significant 3 bytes specify the target row within that metadata table, or starting byte offset within the User String heap. The rows within metadata tables are numbered one upwards, whilst offsets in the heap are numbered zero upwards. (So, for example, the metadata token with value 0x02000007 specifies row number 7 in the TypeDef table)

1.10       Exceptions Thrown

A CIL instruction can throw a range of exceptions. The CLI can also throw the general purpose exception called ExecutionEngineException. See Partition I_alink_partitionI for details.

2         Prefixes to Instructions

These special values are reserved to precede specific instructions. They do not constitute full instructions in their own right. It is not valid CIL to branch to the instruction following the prefix, but the prefix itself is a valid branch target. It is not valid CIL to have a prefix without immediately following it by one of the instructions it is permitted to precede.

 

2.1         tail. (prefix) – call terminates current method

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 14	tail.	Subsequent call terminates current method

 

Description:

The tail. instruction must immediately precede a call, calli, or callvirt instruction. It indicates that the current method’s stack frame is no longer required and thus can be removed before the call instruction is executed. Because the value returned by the call will be the value returned by this method, the call can be converted into a cross-method jump.

The evaluation stack must be empty except for the arguments being transferred by the following call. The instruction following the call instruction must be a ret. Thus the only legal code sequence is

tail. call (or calli or callvirt) somewhere
ret

Correct CIL must not branch to the call instruction, but it is permitted to branch to the ret. The only values on the stack must be the arguments for the method being called.

The tail.call (or calli or callvirt) instruction cannot be used to transfer control out of a try, filter, catch, or finally block. See Partition I_alink_partitionI.

The current frame cannot be discarded when control is transferred from untrusted code to trusted code, since this would jeopardize code identity security. Security checks may therefore cause the tail. to be ignored, leaving a standard call instruction.

Similarly, in order to allow the exit of a synchronized region to occur after the call returns, the tail. prefix is ignored when used to exit a method that is marked synchronized.

There may also be implementation-specific restrictions that prevent the tail. prefix from being obeyed in certain cases. While an implementation is free to ignore the tail. prefix under these circumstances, they should be clearly documented as they can affect the behavior of programs.

CLI implementations are required to honor tail. call requests where caller and callee methods can be statically determined to lie in the same assembly; and where the caller is not in a synchronized region; and where caller and callee satisfy all conditions listed in the “Verifiability” rules below. (To “honor” the tail. prefix means to remove the caller’s frame, rather than revert to a regular call sequence). Consequently, a CLI implementation need not honor tail. calli or tail. callvirt sequences.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL obeys the control transfer constraints listed above. In addition, no managed pointers can be passed to the method being called if they point into the stack frame that is about to be removed. The return type of the method being called must be compatible with the return type of the current method. Verification requires that no managed pointers are passed to the method being called, since it does not track pointers into the current frame.

 

2.2         unaligned. (prefix) – pointer instruction may be unaligned

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 12 <unsigned int8>	unaligned. alignment	Subsequent pointer instruction may be unaligned

 

Stack Transition:

..., addr à ..., addr

Description:

Unaligned. specifies that address (an unmanaged pointer (&), or native int) on the stack may not be aligned to the natural size of the immediately following ldind, stind, ldfld, stfld, ldobj, stobj, initblk, or cpblk instruction. That is, for a ldind.i4 instruction the alignment of addr may not be to a 4-byte boundary. For initblk and cpblk the default alignment is architecture dependent (4-byte on 32-bit CPUs, 8-byte on 64-bit CPUs). Code generators that do not restrict their output to a 32-bit word size (see Partition I_alink_partitionI and Partition II_alink_partitionI) must use unaligned. if the alignment is not known at compile time to be 8-byte.

The value of alignment shall be 1, 2, or 4 and means that the generated code should assume that addr is byte, double byte, or quad byte aligned, respectively.

The unaligned. and volatile. prefixes may be combined in either order. They must immediately precede a ldind, stind, ldfld, stfld, ldobj, stobj, initblk, or cpblk instruction. Only the volatile. prefix is allowed for the ldsfld and stsfld instructions.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

An unaligned. prefix shall be immediately followed by one of the instructions listed above.

 

2.3         volatile. (prefix) - pointer reference is volatile

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 13	volatile.	Subsequent pointer reference is volatile

 

Stack Transition:

..., addr à ..., addr

Description:

volatile. specifies that addr is a volatile address (i.e. it may be referenced externally to the current thread of execution) and the results of reading that location cannot be cached or that multiple stores to that location cannot be suppressed. Marking an access as volatile. affects only that single access; other accesses to the same location must be marked separately. Access to volatile locations need not be performed atomically. [see Partition I_alink_partitionI]

The unaligned. and volatile. prefixes may be combined in either order. They must immediately precede a ldind, stind, ldfld, stfld, ldobj, stobj, initblk, or cpblk instruction. Only the volatile. prefix is allowed for the ldsfld and stsfld instructions.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

A volatile. prefix should be immediately followed by one of the instructions listed above.

 

3         Base Instructions

These instructions form a “Turing Complete” set of basic operations. They are independent of the object model that may be employed. Operations that are specifically related to the CTS’s object model are contained in the Object Model Instructions section.

 

3.1         add - add numeric values

Format	Assembly Format	Description
58	add	Add two values, returning a new value

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The add instruction adds value2 to value1 and pushes the result on the stack. Overflow is not detected for integral operations (but see add.ovf); floating-point overflow returns +inf or -inf.

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type is encapsulated in Table2: Binary Numeric Operations_Table2_BinaryNumericOperations.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

See Table2: Binary Numeric Operations_Table2_BinaryNumericOperations.

 

3.2         add.ovf.<signed> - add integer values with overflow check

Format	Assembly Format	Description
D6	add.ovf	Add signed integer values with overflow check.
D7	add.ovf.un	Add unsigned integer values with overflow check.

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The add.ovf instruction adds value1 and value2 and pushes the result on the stack. The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type is encapsulated in Table 7: Overflow Arithmetic Operations_Table7_OverflowArithmeticOperations.

Exceptions:

OverflowException is thrown if the result can not be represented in the result type.

Verifiability:

See Table 7: Overflow Arithmetic Operations_Table7_OverflowArithmeticOperations.

 

3.3         and - bitwise AND

Format	Instruction	Description
5F	And	Bitwise AND of two integral values, returns an integral value

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The and instruction computes the bitwise AND of the top two values on the stack and pushes the result on the stack. The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type is encapsulated in Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

See Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

 

3.4         arglist - get argument list

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 00	arglist	return argument list handle for the current method

 

Stack Transition:

… à …, argListHandle

Description:

The arglist instruction returns an opaque handle (an unmanaged pointer, type native int) representing the argument list of the current method. This handle is valid only during the lifetime of the current method. The handle can, however, be passed to other methods as long as the current method is on the thread of control. The arglist instruction may only be executed within a method that takes a variable number of arguments.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

It is incorrect CIL generation to emit this instruction except in the body of a method whose signature indicates it accepts a variable number of arguments. Within such a method its use is verifiable, but verification requires that the result is an instance of the System.RuntimeArgumentHandle class.

 

3.5         beq.<length> – branch on equal

Format	Assembly Format	Description
3B <int32>	beq target	branch to target if equal
2E <int8>	beq.s target	branch to target if equal, short form

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …

Description:

The beq instruction transfers control to target if value1 is equal to value2. The effect is identical to performing a ceq instruction followed by a brtrue target. Target is represented as a signed offset (4 bytes for beq, 1 byte for beq.s) from the beginning of the instruction following the current instruction.

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

If the target instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Control transfers into and out of try, catch, filter, and finally blocks cannot be performed by this instruction. (Such transfers are severely restricted and must use the leave instruction instead; see Partition I_alink_partitionI for details).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL must observe all of the control transfer rules specified above and must guarantee that the top two items on the stack correspond to the types shown in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch OperationsTable4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

In addition, verifiable code requires the type-consistency of the stack, locals and arguments for every possible path to the destination instruction. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTables for more details.

 

3.6         bge.<length> – branch on greater than or equal to

Format	Assembly Format	Description
3C <int32>	bge target	branch to target if greater than or equal to
2F <int8>	bge.s target	branch to target if greater than or equal to, short form

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …

Description:

The bge instruction transfers control to target if value1 is greater than or equal to value2. The effect is identical to performing a clt.un instruction followed by a brfalse target. Target is represented as a signed offset (4 bytes for bge, 1 byte for bge.s) from the beginning of the instruction following the current instruction.

The effect of a “bge target” instruction is identical to:

·              If stack operands are integers, then : clt followed by a brfalse target

·              If stack operands are floating-point, then : clt.un followed by a brfalse target

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

If the target instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Control transfers into and out of try, catch, filter, and finally blocks cannot be performed by this instruction. (Such transfers are severely restricted and must use the leave instruction instead; see Partition I_alink_partitionI for details).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL must observe all of the control transfer rules specified above and must guarantee that the top two items on the stack correspond to the types shown in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

In addition, verifiable code requires the type-consistency of the stack, locals and arguments for every possible path to the destination instruction. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTables for more details.

 

3.7         bge.un.<length> – branch on greater than or equal to, unsigned or unordered

Format	Assembly Format	Description
41 <int32>	bge.un target	branch to target if greater than or equal to (unsigned or unordered)
34 <int8>	bge.un.s target	branch to target if greater than or equal to (unsigned or unordered), short form

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …

Description:

The bge.un instruction transfers control to target if value1 is greater than or equal to value2, when compared unsigned (for integer values) or unordered (for float point values). The effect is identical to performing a clt instruction followed by a brfalse target. Target is represented as a signed offset (4 bytes for bge.un, 1 byte for bge.un.s) from the beginning of the instruction following the current instruction.

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

If the target instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Control transfers into and out of try, catch, filter, and finally blocks cannot be performed by this instruction. (Such transfers are severely restricted and must use the leave instruction instead; see Partition I_alink_partitionI for details).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL must observe all of the control transfer rules specified above and must guarantee that the top two items on the stack correspond to the types shown in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

In addition, verifiable code requires the type-consistency of the stack, locals and arguments for every possible path to the destination instruction. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details.

 

3.8         bgt.<length> – branch on greater than

Format	Assembly Format	Description
3D <int32>	bgt target	branch to target if greater than
30 <int8>	bgt.s target	branch to target if greater than, short form

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …

Description:

The bgt instruction transfers control to target if value1 is greater than value2. The effect is identical to performing a cgt instruction followed by a brtrue target. Target is represented as a signed offset (4 bytes for bgt, 1 byte for bgt.s) from the beginning of the instruction following the current instruction.

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

If the target instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Control transfers into and out of try, catch, filter, and finally blocks cannot be performed by this instruction. (Such transfers are severely restricted and must use the leave instruction instead; see Partition I_alink_partitionI for details).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL must observe all of the control transfer rules specified above and must guarantee that the top two items on the stack correspond to the types shown in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

In addition, verifiable code requires the type-consistency of the stack, locals and arguments for every possible path to the destination instruction. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details.

 

3.9         bgt.un.<length> – branch on greater than, unsigned or unordered

Format	Assembly Format	Description
42 <int32>	bgt.un target	branch to target if greater than (unsigned or unordered)
35 <int8>	bgt.un.s target	branch to target if greater than (unsigned or unordered), short form

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …

Description:

The bgt.un instruction transfers control to target if value1 is greater than value2, when compared unsigned (for integer values) or unordered (for float point values). The effect is identical to performing a cgt.un instruction followed by a brtrue target. Target is represented as a signed offset (4 bytes for bgt.un, 1 byte for bgt.un.s) from the beginning of the instruction following the current instruction.

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

If the target instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Control transfers into and out of try, catch, filter, and finally blocks cannot be performed by this instruction. (Such transfers are severely restricted and must use the leave instruction instead; see Partition I_alink_partitionI for details).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL must observe all of the control transfer rules specified above and must guarantee that the top two items on the stack correspond to the types shown in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

In addition, verifiable code requires the type-consistency of the stack, locals and arguments for every possible path to the destination instruction. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details.

 

3.10      ble.<length> – branch on less than or equal to

Format	Assembly Format	Description
3E <int32>	ble target	branch to target if less than or equal to
31 <int8>	ble.s target	branch to target if less than or equal to, short form

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …

Description:

The ble instruction transfers control to target if value1 is less than or equal to value2. Target is represented as a signed offset (4 bytes for ble, 1 byte for ble.s) from the beginning of the instruction following the current instruction.

The effect of a “ble target” instruction is identical to:

·              If stack operands are integers, then : cgt followed by a brfalse target

·              If stack operands are floating-point, then : cgt.un followed by a brfalse target

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

If the target instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Control transfers into and out of try, catch, filter, and finally blocks cannot be performed by this instruction. (Such transfers are severely restricted and must use the leave instruction instead; see Partition I_alink_partitionI for details).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL must observe all of the control transfer rules specified above and must guarantee that the top two items on the stack correspond to the types shown in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

In addition, verifiable code requires the type-consistency of the stack, locals and arguments for every possible path to the destination instruction. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details.

 

3.11      ble.un.<length> – branch on less than or equal to, unsigned or unordered

Format	Assembly Format	Description
43 <int32>	ble.un target	branch to target if less than or equal to (unsigned or unordered)
36 <int8>	ble.un.s target	branch to target if less than or equal to (unsigned or unordered), short form

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …

Description:

The ble.un instruction transfers control to target if value1 is less than or equal to value2, when compared unsigned (for integer values) or unordered (for float point values). Target is represented as a signed offset (4 bytes for ble.un, 1 byte for ble.un.s) from the beginning of the instruction following the current instruction.

The effect of a “ble.un target” instruction is identical to:

·              If stack operands are integers, then : cgt.un followed by a brfalse target

·              If stack operands are floating-point, then : cgt followed by a brfalse target

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

If the target instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Control transfers into and out of try, catch, filter, and finally blocks cannot be performed by this instruction. (Such transfers are severely restricted and must use the leave instruction instead; see Partition I_alink_partitionI for details).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL must observe all of the control transfer rules specified above and must guarantee that the top two items on the stack correspond to the types shown in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

In addition, verifiable code requires the type-consistency of the stack, locals and arguments for every possible path to the destination instruction. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details.

 

3.12      blt.<length> – branch on less than

Format	Assembly Format	Description
3F <int32>	blt target	branch to target if less than
32 <int8>	blt.s target	branch to target if less than, short form

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …

Description:

The blt instruction transfers control to target if value1 is less than value2. The effect is identical to performing a clt instruction followed by a brtrue target. Target is represented as a signed offset (4 bytes for blt, 1 byte for blt.s) from the beginning of the instruction following the current instruction.

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

If the target instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Control transfers into and out of try, catch, filter, and finally blocks cannot be performed by this instruction. (Such transfers are severely restricted and must use the leave instruction instead; see Partition I_alink_partitionI for details).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL must observe all of the control transfer rules specified above and must guarantee that the top two items on the stack correspond to the types shown in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

In addition, verifiable code requires the type-consistency of the stack, locals and arguments for every possible path to the destination instruction. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details.

 

3.13      blt.un.<length> – branch on less than, unsigned or unordered

Format	Assembly Format	Description
44 <int32>	blt.un target	Branch to target if less than (unsigned or unordered)
37 <int8>	blt.un.s target	Branch to target if less than (unsigned or unordered), short form

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …

Description:

The blt.un instruction transfers control to target if value1 is less than value2, when compared unsigned (for integer values) or unordered (for float point values). The effect is identical to performing a clt.un instruction followed by a brtrue target. Target is represented as a signed offset (4 bytes for blt.un, 1 byte for blt.un.s) from the beginning of the instruction following the current instruction.

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

If the target instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Control transfers into and out of try, catch, filter, and finally blocks cannot be performed by this instruction. (Such transfers are severely restricted and must use the leave instruction instead; see Partition I_alink_partitionI for details).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL must observe all of the control transfer rules specified above and must guarantee that the top two items on the stack correspond to the types shown in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

In addition, verifiable code requires the type-consistency of the stack, locals and arguments for every possible path to the destination instruction. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details.

 

3.14      bne.un<length> – branch on not equal or unordered

Format	Assembly Format	Description
40 <int32>	bne.un target	branch to target if unequal or unordered
33 <int8>	bne.un.s target	branch to target if unequal or unordered, short form

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …

Description:

The bne.un instruction transfers control to target if value1 is not equal to value2, when compared unsigned (for integer values) or unordered (for float point values). The effect is identical to performing a ceq instruction followed by a brfalse target. Target is represented as a signed offset (4 bytes for bne.un, 1 byte for bne.un.s) from the beginning of the instruction following the current instruction.

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

If the target instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Control transfers into and out of try, catch, filter, and finally blocks cannot be performed by this instruction. (Such transfers are severely restricted and must use the leave instruction instead; see Partition I_alink_partitionI for details).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL must observe all of the control transfer rules specified above and must guarantee that the top two items on the stack correspond to the types shown in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

In addition, verifiable code requires the type-consistency of the stack, locals and arguments for every possible path to the destination instruction. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details.

 

3.15      br.<length> – unconditional branch

Format	Assembly Format	Description
38 <int32>	br target	branch to target
2B <int8>	br.s target	branch to target, short form

 

Stack Transition:

…, à …

Description:

The br instruction unconditionally transfers control to target. Target is represented as a signed offset (4 bytes for br, 1 byte for br.s) from the beginning of the instruction following the current instruction.

If the target instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Control transfers into and out of try, catch, filter, and finally blocks cannot be performed by this instruction. (Such transfers are severely restricted and must use the leave instruction instead; see Partition I_alink_partitionI for details).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL must observe all of the control transfer rules specified above.

In addition, verifiable code requires the type-consistency of the stack, locals and arguments for every possible path to the destination instruction. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details.

 

3.16      break – breakpoint instruction

Format	Assembly Format	Description
01	break	inform a debugger that a breakpoint has been reached.

 

Stack Transition:

…, à …

Description:

The break instruction is for debugging support. It signals the CLI to inform the debugger that a break point has been tripped. It has no other effect on the interpreter state.

The break instruction has the smallest possible instruction size so that code can be patched with a breakpoint with minimal disturbance to the surrounding code.

The break instruction may trap to a debugger, do nothing, or raise a security exception: the exact behavior is implementation-defined

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

The break instruction is always verifiable.

 

3.17      brfalse.<length> - branch on false, null, or zero

Format	Assembly Format	Description
39 <int32>	brfalse target	branch to target if value is zero (false)
2C <int8>	brfalse.s target	branch to target if value is zero (false), short form
39 <int32>	brnull target	branch to target if value is null (alias for brfalse)
2C <int8>	brnull.s target	branch to target if value is null (alias for brfalse.s), short form
39 <int32>	brzero target	branch to target if value is zero (alias for brfalse)
2C <int8>	brzero.s target	branch to target if value is zero (alias for brfalse.s), short form

 

Stack Transition:

…, value à …

Description:

The brfalse instruction transfers control to target if value (of type int32, int64, object reference, managed pointer, unmanaged pointer or native int) is zero (false). If value is non-zero (true) execution continues at the next instruction.

Target is represented as a signed offset (4 bytes for brfalse, 1 byte for brfalse.s) from the beginning of the instruction following the current instruction.

If the target instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Control transfers into and out of try, catch, filter, and finally blocks cannot be performed by this instruction. (Such transfers are severely restricted and must use the leave instruction instead; see Partition I_alink_partitionI for details).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL must observe all of the control transfer rules specified above and must guarantee there is a minimum of one item on the stack.

In addition, verifiable code requires the type-consistency of the stack, locals and arguments for every possible path to the destination instruction. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details.

 

3.18      brtrue.<length> - branch on non-false or non-null

Format	Assembly Format	Description
3A <int32>	brtrue target	branch to target if value is non-zero (true)
2D <int8>	brtrue.s target	branch to target if value is non-zero (true), short form
3A <int32>	brinst target	branch to target if value is a non-null object reference (alias for brtrue)
2D <int8>	brinst.s target	branch to target if value is a non-null object reference, short form (alias for brtrue.s)

 

Stack Transition:

…, value à …

Description:

The brtrue instruction transfers control to target if value (of type native int) is nonzero (true). If value is zero (false) execution continues at the next instruction.

If the value is an object reference (type O) then brinst (an alias for brtrue) transfers control if it represents an instance of an object (i.e. isn’t the null object reference, see ldnull).

Target is represented as a signed offset (4 bytes for brtrue, 1 byte for brtrue.s) from the beginning of the instruction following the current instruction.

If the target instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Control transfers into and out of try, catch, filter, and finally blocks cannot be performed by this instruction. (Such transfers are severely restricted and must use the leave instruction instead; see Partition I_alink_partitionI for details).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL must observe all of the control transfer rules specified above and must guarantee there is a minimum of one item on the stack.

In addition, verifiable code requires the type-consistency of the stack, locals and arguments for every possible path to the destination instruction. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details.

 

3.19      call – call a method

Format	Assembly Format	Description
28 <T>	call method	Call method described by method

 

Stack Transition:

…, arg1, arg2 … argn à …, retVal (not always returned)

Description:

The call instruction calls the method indicated by the descriptor method. Method is a metadata token (either a methodref or methoddef (See Partition II_alink_partitionII) that indicates the method to call and the number, type, and order of the arguments that have been placed on the stack to be passed to that method as well as the calling convention to be used. See Partition I_alink_partitionI for a detailed description of the CIL calling sequence. The call instruction may be immediately preceded by a tail. prefix to specify that the current method state should be released before transferring control (see Section 2.1).

The metadata token carries sufficient information to determine whether the call is to a static method, an instance method, a virtual method, or a global function. In all of these cases the destination address is determined entirely from the metadata token (Contrast with the callvirt instruction for calling virtual methods, where the destination address also depends upon the runtime type of the instance reference pushed before the callvirt; see below).

 If the method does not exist in the class specified by the metadata token, the base classes are searched to find the most derived class which defines the method and that method is called.

The arguments are placed on the stack in left-to-right order. That is, the first argument is computed and placed on the stack, then the second argument, etc. There are three important special cases:

1.             Calls to an instance (or virtual, see below) method must push that instance reference (the this pointer) before any of the user-visible arguments. The signature carried in the metadata does not contain an entry in the parameter list for the this pointer but uses a bit (called HASTHIS) to indicate whether the method requires passing the this pointer (see Partition II_alink_partitionII)

2.             It is legal to call a virtual method using call (rather than callvirt); this indicates that the method is to be resolved using the class specified by method rather than as specified dynamically from the object being invoked. This is used, for example, to compile calls to “methods on super” (i.e. the statically known parent class).

3.             Note that a delegate’s Invoke method may be called with either the call or callvirt instruction.

Exceptions:

SecurityException may be thrown if system security does not grant the caller access to the called method. The security check may occur when the CIL is converted to native code rather than at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that the stack contains the correct number and type of arguments for the method being called.

For a typical use of the call instruction, verification checks that (a) method refers to a valid methodref or methoddef token; (b) the types of the objects on the stack are consistent with the types expected by the method call, and (c) the method is accessible from the callsite, and (d) the method is not abstract (ie, it has an implementation)

The call instruction may also be used to call an object’s superclass constructor, or to initialize a value type location by calling an appropriate constructor, both of which are treated as special cases by verification. A call annotated by tail. is also a special case.

If the target method is global (defined outside of any type), then the method must be static.

 

3.20      calli– indirect method call

Format	Assembly Format	Description
29 <T>	calli callsitedescr	Call method indicated on the stack with arguments described by callsitedescr.

 

Stack Transition:

…, arg1, arg2 … argn, ftn à … retVal (not always returned)

Description:

The calli instruction calls ftn (a pointer to a method entry point) with the arguments arg1 … argn. The types of these arguments are described by the signature callsitedescr. See Partition I_alink_partitionI for a description of the CIL calling sequence. The calli instruction may be immediately preceded by a tail. prefix to specify that the current method state should be released before transferring control. If the call would transfer control to a method of higher trust than the origin method the stack frame will not be released; instead, the execution will continue silently as if the tail. prefix had not been supplied.

[A callee of “higher trust” is defined as one whose permission grant-set is a strict superset of the grant-set of the caller]

The ftn argument is assumed to be a pointer to native code (of the target machine) that can be legitimately called with the arguments described by callsitedescr (a metadata token for a stand-alone signature). Such a pointer can be created using the ldftn or ldvirtftn instructions, or have been passed in from native code.

The standalone signature specifies the number and type of parameters being passed, as well as the calling convention (See Partition II_alink_partitionII) The calling convention is not checked dynamically, so code that uses a calli instruction will not work correctly if the destination does not actually use the specified calling convention.

The arguments are placed on the stack in left-to-right order. That is, the first argument is computed and placed on the stack, then the second argument, etc. The argument-building code sequence for an instance or virtual method must push that instance reference (the this pointer, which must not be null) before any of the user-visible arguments.

Exceptions:

SecurityException may be thrown if the system security does not grant the caller access to the called method. The security check may occur when the CIL is converted to native code rather than at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL requires that the function pointer contains the address of a method whose signature matches that specified by callsitedescr and that the arguments correctly correspond to the types of the destination function’s parameters.

Verification checks that ftn is a pointer to a function generated by ldftn or ldvirtfn.

 

3.21      ceq - compare equal

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 01	ceq	push 1 (of type int32) if value1 equals value2, else 0

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The ceq instruction compares value1 and value2. If value1 is equal to value2, then 1 (of type int32) is pushed on the stack. Otherwise 0 (of type int32) is pushed on the stack.

For floating-point number, ceq will return 0 if the numbers are unordered (either or both are NaN). The infinite values are equal to themselves.

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL provides two values on the stack whose types match those specified in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations. There are no additional verification requirements.

 

3.22      cgt - compare greater than

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 02	cgt	push 1 (of type int32) if value1 > value2, else 0

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The cgt instruction compares value1 and value2. If value1 is strictly greater than value2, then 1 (of type int32) is pushed on the stack. Otherwise 0 (of type int32) is pushed on the stack

For floating-point numbers, cgt returns 0 if the numbers are unordered (that is, if one or both of the arguments are NaN).

As per IEC 60559:1989 spec, infinite values are ordered with respect to normal numbers (e.g +infinity > 5.0 > -infinity).

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL provides two values on the stack whose types match those specified in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations. There are no additional verification requirements.

 

3.23      cgt.un - compare greater than, unsigned or unordered

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 03	cgt.un	push 1 (of type int32) if value1 > value2, unsigned or unordered, else 0

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The cgt.un instruction compares value1 and value2. A value of 1 (of type int32) is pushed on the stack if

·              for floating-point numbers, either value1 is strictly greater than value2, or value1 is not ordered with respect to value2

·              for integer values, value1 is strictly greater than value2 when considered as unsigned numbers

Otherwise 0 (of type int32) is pushed on the stack.

As per IEC 60559:1989 spec, infinite values are ordered with respect to normal numbers (e.g +infinity > 5.0 > -infinity).

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL provides two values on the stack whose types match those specified in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations. There are no additional verification requirements.

 

3.24      ckfinite – check for a finite real number

Format	Assembly Format	Description
C3	ckfinite	throw ArithmeticException if value is not a finite number

 

Stack Transition:

…, value à …, value

Description:

The ckfinite instruction throws ArithmeticException if value (a floating-point number) is either a “not a number” value (NaN) or +- infinity value. Ckfinite leaves the value on the stack if no exception is thrown. Execution is unspecified if value is not a floating-point number.

Exceptions:

ArithmeticException is thrown if value is not a ‘normal’ number.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL guarantees that value is a floating-point number. There are no additional verification requirements.

 

3.25      clt - compare less than

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 04	clt	push 1 (of type int32) if value1 < value2, else 0

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The clt instruction compares value1 and value2. If value1 is strictly less than value2, then 1 (of type int32) is pushed on the stack. Otherwise 0 (of type int32) is pushed on the stack

For floating-point numbers, clt will return 0 if the numbers are unordered (that is one or both of the arguments are NaN).

As per IEC 60559:1989 spec, infinite values are ordered with respect to normal numbers (e.g +infinity > 5.0 > -infinity).

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL provides two values on the stack whose types match those specified in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations. There are no additional verification requirements.

 

3.26      clt.un - compare less than, unsigned or unordered

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 05	clt.un	push 1 (of type int32) if value1 < value2, unsigned or unordered, else 0

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The clt.un instruction compares value1 and value2. A value of 1 (of type int32) is pushed on the stack if

·              for floating-point numbers, either value1 is strictly less than value2, or value1 is not ordered with respect to value2

·              for integer values, value1 is strictly less than value2 when considered as unsigned numbers

Otherwise 0 (of type int32) is pushed on the stack.

As per IEC 60559:1989 spec, infinite values are ordered with respect to normal numbers (e.g +infinity > 5.0 > -infinity).

The acceptable operand types are encapsulated in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL provides two values on the stack whose types match those specified in Table 4: Binary Comparison or Branch Operations_Table4_BinaryComparisonOrBranchOperations. There are no additional verification requirements.

 

3.27      conv.<to type> - data conversion

Format	Assembly Format	Description
67	conv.i1	Convert to int8, pushing int32 on stack
68	conv.i2	Convert to int16, pushing int32 on stack
69	conv.i4	Convert to int32, pushing int32 on stack
6A	conv.i8	Convert to int64, pushing int64 on stack
6B	conv.r4	Convert to float32, pushing F on stack
6C	conv.r8	Convert to float64, pushing F on stack
D2	conv.u1	Convert to unsigned int8, pushing int32 on stack
D1	conv.u2	Convert to unsigned int16, pushing int32 on stack
6D	conv.u4	Convert to unsigned int32, pushing int32 on stack
6E	conv.u8	Convert to unsigned int64, pushing int64 on stack
D3	conv.i	Convert to native int, pushing native int on stack
E0	conv.u	Convert to native unsigned  int, pushing native int on stack
76	conv.r.un	Convert unsigned integer to floating-point, pushing F on stack

 

Stack Transition:

…, value à …, result

Description:

Convert the value on top of the stack to the type specified in the opcode, and leave that converted value on the top of the stack. Note that integer values of less than 4 bytes are extended to int32 (not native int) when they are loaded onto the evaluation stack, and floating-point values are converted to the F type.

Conversion from floating-point numbers to integral values truncates the number toward zero. When converting from an float64 to an float32, precision may be lost. If value is too large to fit in an float32, the IEC 60559:1989 positive infinity (if value is positive) or IEC 60559:1989 negative infinity (if value is negative) is returned. If overflow occurs converting one integer type to another the high order bits are silently truncated. If the result is smaller than an int32, then the value is sign-extended to fill the slot.

If overflow occurs converting a floating-point type to an integer the value returned is unspecified. The conv.r.un operation takes an integer off the stack, interprets it as unsigned, and replaces it with a floating-point number to represent the integer; either a float32, if this is wide enough to represent the integer without loss of precision, else a float64.

No exceptions are ever thrown. See conv.ovf for instructions that will throw an exception when the result type can not properly represent the result value.

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type is encapsulated in Table 8: Conversion Operations_Table8_ConversionOperations.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL has at least one value, of a type specified in Table 8: Conversion Operations_Table8_ConversionOperations, on the stack. The same table specifies a restricted set of types that are acceptable in verified code.

 

3.28      conv.ovf.<to type> - data conversion with overflow detection

Format	Assembly Format	Description
B3	conv.ovf.i1	Convert to an int8 (on the stack as int32) and throw an exception on overflow
B5	conv.ovf.i2	Convert to an int16 (on the stack as int32) and throw an exception on overflow
B7	conv.ovf.i4	Convert to an int32 (on the stack as int32) and throw an exception on overflow
B9	conv.ovf.i8	Convert to an int64 (on the stack as int64) and throw an exception on overflow
B4	conv.ovf.u1	Convert to a unsigned int8 (on the stack as int32) and throw an exception on overflow
B6	conv.ovf.u2	Convert to a unsigned int16 (on the stack as int32) and throw an exception on overflow
B8	conv.ovf.u4	Convert to a unsigned int32 (on the stack as int32) and throw an exception on overflow
BA	conv.ovf.u8	Convert to a unsigned int64 (on the stack as int64) and throw an exception on overflow
D4	conv.ovf.i	Convert to an native int (on the stack as native int) and throw an exception on overflow
D5	conv.ovf.u	Convert to a native unsigned  int (on the stack as native int) and throw an exception on overflow

 

Stack Transition:

…, value à …, result

Description:

Convert the value on top of the stack to the type specified in the opcode, and leave that converted value on the top of the stack. If the value is too large or too small to be represented by the target type, an exception is thrown.

Conversions from floating-point numbers to integral values truncate the number toward zero. Note that integer values of less than 4 bytes are extended to int32 (not native int) on the evaluation stack.

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type is encapsulated in Table 8: Conversion Operations_Table8_ConversionOperations.

Exceptions:

OverflowException is thrown if the result can not be represented in the result type

Verifiability:

Correct CIL has at least one value, of a type specified in Table 8: Conversion Operations_Table8_ConversionOperations, on the stack. The same table specifies a restricted set of types that are acceptable in verified code.

 

3.29      conv.ovf.<to type>.un – unsigned data conversion with overflow detection

Format	Assembly Format	Description
82	conv.ovf.i1.un	Convert unsigned to an int8 (on the stack as int32) and throw an exception on overflow
83	conv.ovf.i2.un	Convert unsigned to an int16 (on the stack as int32) and throw an exception on overflow
84	conv.ovf.i4.un	Convert unsigned to an int32 (on the stack as int32) and throw an exception on overflow
85	conv.ovf.i8.un	Convert unsigned to an int64 (on the stack as int64) and throw an exception on overflow
86	conv.ovf.u1.un	Convert unsigned to an unsigned int8 (on the stack as int32) and throw an exception on overflow
87	conv.ovf.u2.un	Convert unsigned to an unsigned int16 (on the stack as int32) and throw an exception on overflow
88	conv.ovf.u4.un	Convert unsigned to an unsigned int32 (on the stack as int32) and throw an exception on overflow
89	conv.ovf.u8.un	Convert unsigned to an unsigned int64 (on the stack as int64) and throw an exception on overflow
8A	conv.ovf.i.un	Convert unsigned to a native int (on the stack as native int) and throw an exception on overflow
8B	conv.ovf.u.un	Convert unsigned to a native unsigned  int (on the stack as native int) and throw an exception on overflow

 

Stack Transition:

…, value à …, result

Description:

Convert the value on top of the stack to the type specified in the opcode, and leave that converted value on the top of the stack. If the value cannot be represented, an exception is thrown. The item at the top of the stack is treated as an unsigned value.

Conversions from floating-point numbers to integral values truncate the number toward zero. Note that integer values of less than 4 bytes are extended to int32 (not native int) on the evaluation stack.

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type is encapsulated in Table 8: Conversion Operations_Table8_ConversionOperations.

Exceptions:

OverflowException is thrown if the result can not be represented in the result type

Verifiability:

Correct CIL has at least one value, of a type specified in Table 8: Conversion Operations_Table8_ConversionOperations, on the stack. The same table specifies a restricted set of types that are acceptable in verified code.

 

3.30      cpblk - copy data from memory to memory

Format	Instruction	Description
FE 17	cpblk	Copy data from memory to memory

 

Stack Transition:

…, destaddr, srcaddr, size à …

Description:

The cpblk instruction copies size (of type unsigned int32) bytes from address srcaddr (of type native int, or &) to address destaddr (of type native int, or &). The behavior of cpblk is unspecified if the source and destination areas overlap.

cpblk assumes that both destaddr and srcaddr are aligned to the natural size of the machine (but see the unaligned. prefix instruction). The cpblk instruction may be immediately preceded by the unaligned. prefix instruction to indicate that either the source or the destination is unaligned.

The operation of the cpblk instruction may be altered by an immediately preceding volatile. or unaligned. prefix instruction.

Exceptions:

NullReferenceException may be thrown if an invalid address is detected.

Verifiability:

The cpblk instruction is never verifiable. Correct CIL ensures the conditions specified above.

 

3.31      div - divide values

Format	Assembly Format	Description
5B	div	Divide two values to return a quotient or floating-point result

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

result = value1 div value2 satisfies the following conditions:

|result| = |value1| / |value2|, and

sign(result) = +, if sign(value1) = sign(value2), or
 –, if sign(value1) ~= sign(value2)

The div instruction computes result and pushes it on the stack.

Integer division truncates towards zero.

Floating-point division is per IEC 60559:1989 (IEEE 754). In particular division of a finite number by 0 produces the correctly signed infinite value and

0 / 0 = NaN

infinity / infinity = NaN.

X / infinity = 0

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type is encapsulated in Table 2: Binary Numeric Operations_Table2_BinaryNumbericOperations.

Exceptions:

Integral operations throw ArithmeticException if the result cannot be represented in the result type. This can happen if value1 is the maximum negative value, and value2 is -1.

Integral operations throw DivideByZeroException if value2 is zero.

Floating-point operations never throw an exception (they produce NaNs or infinities instead, see Partition I_alink_partitionI).

Example:

+14 div +3        is 4

+14 div -3        is -4

-14 div +3        is -4

-14 div -3        is 4

Verifiability:

See Table 2: Binary Numeric Operations_Table2_BinaryNumbericOperations.

 

3.32      div.un - divide integer values, unsigned

Format	Assembly Format	Description
5C	div.un	Divide two values, unsigned, returning a quotient

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The div.un instruction computes value1 divided by value2, both taken as unsigned integers, and pushes the result on the stack.

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type are encapsulated in Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

Exceptions:

DivideByZeroException is thrown if value2 is zero.

Example:

+5 div.un +3      is 1

+5 div.un -3      is 0

 -5 div.un +3     is 14316557630 or 0x55555553

 -5 div.un -3     is 0

Verifiability:

See Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

 

3.33      dup – duplicate the top value of the stack

Format	Assembly Format	Description
25	dup	duplicate value on the top of the stack

 

Stack Transition:

…, value à …, value, value

Description:

The dup instruction duplicates the top element of the stack.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

No additional requirements.

 

3.34      endfilter – end filter clause of SEH

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 11	Endfilter	End filter clause of SEH exception handling

 

Stack Transition:

…, value à …

Description:

Return from filter clause of an exception (see the Exception Handling section of Partition Ialink_partitionI for a discussion of exceptions). Value (which must be of type int32 and is one of a specific set of values) is returned from the filter clause. It should be one of:

·              exception_continue_search (0) to continue searching for an exception handler

·              exception_execute_handler (1) to start the second phase of exception handling where finally blocks are run until the handler associated with this filter clause is located. Then the handler is executed.

Other integer values will produce unspecified results.

The entry point of a filter, as shown in the method’s exception table, must be the (lexically) first instruction in the filter’s code block. The endfilter must be the (lexically) last instruction in the filter’s code block (hence there can only be one endfilter for any single filter block). After executing the endfilter instruction, control logically flows back to the CLI exception handling mechanism.

Control cannot be transferred into a filter block except through the exception mechanism. Control cannot be transferred out of a filter block except through the use of a throw instruction or executing the final endfilter instruction. In particular, it is not legal to execute a ret or leave instruction within a filter block. It is not legal to embed a try block within a filter block. If an exception is thrown inside the filter block, it is intercepted and a value of exception_continue_search is returned.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL guarantees the control transfer restrictions specified above. Also, the stack must contain exactly one item (of type int32).

 

3.35      endfinally – end the finally or fault clause of an exception block

Format	Assembly Format	Description
DC	Endfault	End fault clause of an exception block
DC	Endfinally	End finally clause of an exception block

 

Stack Transition:

… à …

Description:

Return from the finally or fault clause of an exception block; see the Exception Handling section of Partition I_alink_partitionI for details.

Signals the end of the finally or fault clause so that stack unwinding can continue until the exception handler is invoked. The endfinally or endfault instruction transfers control back to the CLI exception mechanism. This then searches for the next finally clause in the chain, if the protected block was exited with a leave instruction. If the protected block was exited with an exception, the CLI will search for the next finally or fault, or enter the exception handler chosen during the first pass of exception handling.

An endfinally instruction may only appear lexically within a finally block. Unlike the endfilter instruction, there is no requirement that the block end with an endfinally instruction, and there can be as many endfinally instructions within the block as required. These same restrictions apply to the endfault instruction and the fault block, mutatis mutandis.

Control cannot be transferred into a finally (or fault block) except through the exception mechanism. Control cannot be transferred out of a finally (or fault) block except through the use of a throw instruction or executing the endfinally (or endfault) instruction. In particular, it is not legal to “fall out” of a finally (or fault) block or to execute a ret or leave instruction within a finally (or fault) block.

Note that the endfault and endfinally instructions are aliases – they correspond to the same opcode.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL guarantees the control transfer restrictions specified above. There are no additional verification requirements.

 

3.36      initblk - initialize a block of memory to a value

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 18	initblk	Set a block of memory to a given byte

 

Stack Transition:

…, addr, value, size à …

Description:

The initblk instruction sets size (of type unsigned int32) bytes starting at addr (of type native int, or &) to value (of type unsigned int8). initblk assumes that addr is aligned to the natural size of the machine (but see the unaligned. prefix instruction).

The operation of the initblk instructions may be altered by an immediately preceding volatile. or unaligned. prefix instruction.

Exceptions:

NullReferenceException may be thrown if an invalid address is detected.

Verifiability:

The initblk instruction is never verifiable. Correct CIL code ensures the restrictions specified above.

 

3.37      jmp – jump to method

Format	Assembly Format	Description
27 <T>	jmp method	Exit current method and jump to specified method

 

Stack Transition:

… à …

Description:

Transfer control to the method specified by method, which is a metadata token (either a methodref or methoddef (See Partition II_alink_partitionII). The current arguments are transferred to the destination method.

The evaluation stack must be empty when this instruction is executed. The calling convention, number and type of arguments at the destination address must match that of the current method.

The jmp instruction cannot be used to transferred control out of a try, filter, catch, fault or finally block; or out of a synchronized region. If this is done, results are undefined. See Partition I_alink_partitionI.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

The jmp instruction is never verifiable. Correct CIL code obeys the control flow restrictions specified above.

 

3.38      ldarg.<length> - load argument onto the stack

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 09 <unsigned int16>	ldarg num	Load argument numbered num onto stack.
0E <unsigned int8>	ldarg.s num	Load argument numbered num onto stack, short form.
02	ldarg.0	Load argument 0 onto stack
03	ldarg.1	Load argument 1 onto stack
04	ldarg.2	Load argument 2 onto stack
05	ldarg.3	Load argument 3 onto stack

 

Stack Transition:

… à …, value

Description:

The ldarg num instruction pushes the num’th incoming argument, where arguments are numbered 0 onwards (see Partition I_alink_partitionI) onto the evaluation stack. The ldarg instruction can be used to load a value type or a built-in value onto the stack by copying it from an incoming argument. The type of the value is the same as the type of the argument, as specified by the current method’s signature.

The ldarg.0, ldarg.1, ldarg.2, and ldarg.3 instructions are efficient encodings for loading any of the first 4 arguments. The ldarg.s instruction is an efficient encoding for loading argument numbers 4 through 255.

For procedures that take a variable-length argument list, the ldarg instructions can be used only for the initial fixed arguments, not those in the variable part of the signature. (See the arglist instruction)

Arguments that hold an integer value smaller than 4 bytes long are expanded to type int32 when they are loaded onto the stack. Floating-point values are expanded to their native size (type F).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL guarantees that num is a valid argument index. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details on how verification determines the type of the value loaded onto the stack.

 

3.39      ldarga.<length> - load an argument address

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 0A <unsigned int16>	ldarga argNum	fetch the address of argument argNum.
0F <unsigned int8>	ldarga.s argNum	fetch the address of argument argNum, short form

 

Stack Transition:

…, à …, address of argument number argNum

Description:

The ldarga instruction fetches the address (of type &, i.e. managed pointer) of the argNum’th argument, where arguments are numbered 0 onwards. The address will always be aligned to a natural boundary on the target machine (cf. cpblk and initblk). The short form (ldarga.s) should be used for argument numbers 0 through 255.

For procedures that take a variable-length argument list, the ldarga instructions can be used only for the initial fixed arguments, not those in the variable part of the signature.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that argNum is a valid argument index. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details on how verification determines the type of the value loaded onto the stack.

 

3.40      ldc.<type> - load numeric constant

Format	Assembly Format	Description
20 <int32>	ldc.i4 num	Push num of type int32 onto the stack as int32.
21 <int64>	ldc.i8 num	Push num of type int64 onto the stack as int64.
22 <float32>	ldc.r4 num	Push num of type float32 onto the stack as F.
23 <float64>	ldc.r8 num	Push num of type float64 onto the stack as F.
16	ldc.i4.0	Push 0 onto the stack as int32.
17	ldc.i4.1	Push 1 onto the stack as int32.
18	ldc.i4.2	Push 2 onto the stack as int32.
19	ldc.i4.3	Push 3 onto the stack as int32.
1A	ldc.i4.4	Push 4 onto the stack as int32.
1B	ldc.i4.5	Push 5 onto the stack as int32.
1C	ldc.i4.6	Push 6 onto the stack as int32.
1D	ldc.i4.7	Push 7 onto the stack as int32.
1E	ldc.i4.8	Push 8 onto the stack as int32.
15	ldc.i4.m1	Push -1 onto the stack as int32.
15	ldc.i4.M1	Push -1 of type int32 onto the stack as int32 (alias for ldc.i4.m1).
1F <int8>	ldc.i4.s num	Push num onto the stack as int32, short form.

 

Stack Transition:

… à …, num

Description:

The ldc num instruction pushes number num onto the stack. There are special short encodings for the integers –128 through 127 (with especially short encodings for –1 through 8). All short encodings push 4 byte integers on the stack. Longer encodings are used for 8 byte integers and 4 and 8 byte floating-point numbers, as well as 4-byte values that do not fit in the short forms.

There are three ways to push an 8 byte integer constant onto the stack

1.             use the ldc.i8 instruction for constants that must be expressed in more than 32 bits

2.             use the ldc.i4 instruction followed by a conv.i8 for constants that require 9 to 32 bits

3.             use a short form instruction followed by a conv.i8 for constants that can be expressed in 8 or fewer bits

There is no way to express a floating-point constant that has a larger range or greater precision than a 64 bit IEC 60559:1989 number, since these representations are not portable across architectures.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

The ldc instruction is always verifiable.

 

3.41      ldftn - load method pointer

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 06 <T>	ldftn method	Push a pointer to a method referenced by method on the stack

 

Stack Transition:

… à …, ftn

Description:

The ldftn instruction pushes an unmanaged pointer (type native int) to the native code implementing the method described by method (a metadata token, either a methoddef or methodref; see Partition II_alink_partitionII) onto the stack. The value pushed can be called using the calli instruction if it references a managed method (or a stub that transitions from managed to unmanaged code).

The value returned points to native code using the calling convention specified by method. Thus a method pointer can be passed to unmanaged native code (e.g. as a callback routine). Note that the address computed by this instruction may be to a thunk produced specially for this purpose (for example, to re-enter the CIL interpreter when a native version of the method isn’t available).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL requires that method is a valid methoddef or methodref token. Verification tracks the type of the value pushed in more detail than the “native int” type, remembering that it is a method pointer. Such a method pointer can then be used with calli or to construct a delegate.

 

3.42      ldind.<type> - load value indirect onto the stack

Format	Assembly Format	Description
46	ldind.i1	Indirect load value of type int8 as int32 on the stack.
48	ldind.i2	Indirect load value of type int16 as int32 on the stack.
4A	ldind.i4	Indirect load value of type int32 as int32 on the stack.
4C	ldind.i8	Indirect load value of type int64 as int64 on the stack.
47	ldind.u1	Indirect load value of type unsigned int8 as int32 on the stack.
49	ldind.u2	Indirect load value of type unsigned int16 as int32 on the stack.
4B	ldind.u4	Indirect load value of type unsigned int32 as int32 on the stack.
4E	ldind.r4	Indirect load value of type float32 as F on the stack.
4C	ldind.u8	Indirect load value of type unsigned int64 as int64 on the stack (alias for ldind.i8).
4F	ldind.r8	Indirect load value of type float64 as F on the stack.
4D	ldind.i	Indirect load value of type native int as native int on the stack
50	ldind.ref	Indirect load value of type object ref as O on the stack.

 

Stack Transition:

…, addr à …, value

Description:

The ldind instruction indirectly loads a value from address addr (an unmanaged pointer, native int, or managed pointer, &) onto the stack. The source value is indicated by the instruction suffix. All of the ldind instructions are shortcuts for a ldobj instruction that specifies the corresponding built-in value class.

Note that integer values of less than 4 bytes are extended to int32 (not native int) when they are loaded onto the evaluation stack. Floating-point values are converted to F type when loaded onto the evaluation stack.

Correct CIL ensures that the ldind instructions are used in a manner consistent with the type of the pointer.

The address specified by addr must be aligned to the natural size of objects on the machine or a NullReferenceException may occur (but see the unaligned. prefix instruction). The results of all CIL instructions that return addresses (e.g. ldloca and ldarga) are safely aligned. For datatypes larger than 1 byte, the byte ordering is dependent on the target CPU. Code that depends on byte ordering may not run on all platforms.

The operation of the ldind instructions may be altered by an immediately preceding volatile. or unaligned. prefix instruction.

Exceptions:

NullReferenceException may be thrown if an invalid address is detected.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL only uses an ldind instruction in a manner consistent with the type of the pointer.

 

3.43      ldloc - load local variable onto the stack

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 0C<unsigned int16>	ldloc indx	Load local variable of index indx onto stack.
11 <unsigned int8>	ldloc.s indx	Load local variable of index indx onto stack, short form.
06	ldloc.0	Load local variable 0 onto stack.
07	ldloc.1	Load local variable 1 onto stack.
08	ldloc.2	Load local variable 2 onto stack.
09	ldloc.3	Load local variable 3 onto stack.

 

Stack Transition:

… à …, value

Description:

The ldloc indx instruction pushes the contents of the local variable number indx onto the evaluation stack, where local variables are numbered 0 onwards. Local variables are initialized to 0 before entering the method only if the initialize flag on the method is true (see Partition I_alink_partitionI). The ldloc.0, ldloc.1, ldloc.2, and ldloc.3 instructions provide an efficient encoding for accessing the first four local variables. The ldloc.s instruction provides an efficient encoding for accessing local variables 4 through 255.

The type of the value is the same as the type of the local variable, which is specified in the method header. See Partition I_alink_partitionI.

Local variables that are smaller than 4 bytes long are expanded to type int32 when they are loaded onto the stack. Floating-point values are expanded to their native size (type F).

Exceptions:

VerificationException is thrown if the the “zero initialize” bit for this method has not been set, and the assembly containing this method has not been granted SecurityPermission.SkipVerification (and the CIL does not perform automatic definite-assignment analysis)

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that indx is a valid local index. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details on how verification determines the type of a local variable. For the ldloca indx instruction, indx must lie in the range 0 to 65534 inclusive (specifically, 65535 is not valid)

Also, for verifiable code, this instruction must guarantee that it is not loading an uninitialized value – whether that initialization is done explicitly by having set the “zero initialize” bit for the method, or by previous instructions (where the CLI performs definite-assignment analysis)

 

3.44      ldloca.<length> - load local variable address

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 0D <unsigned int16>	ldloca index	Load address of local variable with index indx
12 <unsigned int8>	ldloca.s index	Load address of local variable with index indx, short form

 

Stack Transition:

… à …, address

Description:

The ldloca instruction pushes the address of the local variable number index onto the stack, where local variables are numbered 0 onwards. The value pushed on the stack is already aligned correctly for use with instructions like ldind and stind. The result is a managed pointer (type &). The ldloca.s instruction provides an efficient encoding for use with the local variables 0 through 255.

Exceptions:

VerificationException is thrown if the the “zero initialize” bit for this method has not been set, and the assembly containing this method has not been granted SecurityPermission.SkipVerification (and the CIL does not perform automatic definite-assignment analysis)

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that indx is a valid local index. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details on how verification determines the type of a local variable. For the ldloca indx instruction, indx must lie in the range 0 to 65534 inclusive (specifically, 65535 is not valid)

Also, for verifiable code, this instruction must guarantee that it is not loading an uninitialized value – whether that initialization is done explicitly by having set the “zero initialize” bit for the method, or by previous instructions (where the CLI performs definite-assignment analysis)

 

3.45      ldnull – load a null pointer

Format	Assembly Format	Description
14	ldnull	Push null reference on the stack

 

Stack Transition:

… à …, null value

Description:

The ldnull pushes a null reference (type O) on the stack. This is used to initialize locations before they become live or when they become dead.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

The ldnull instruction is always verifiable, and produces a value that verification considers compatible with any other reference type.

 

3.46      leave.<length> – exit a protected region of code

Format	Assembly Format	Description
DD <int32>	leave target	Exit a protected region of code.
DE <int8>	leave.s target	Exit a protected region of code, short form

 

Stack Transition:

…, à

Description:

The leave instruction unconditionally transfers control to target. Target is represented as a signed offset (4 bytes for leave, 1 byte for leave.s) from the beginning of the instruction following the current instruction.

The leave instruction is similar to the br instruction, but it can be used to exit a try, filter, or catch block whereas the ordinary branch instructions can only be used in such a block to transfer control within it. The leave instruction empties the evaluation stack and ensures that the appropriate surrounding finally blocks are executed.

It is not legal to use a leave instruction to exit a finally block. To ease code generation for exception handlers it is legal from within a catch block to use a leave instruction to transfer control to any instruction within the associated try block.

If an instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL requires the computed destination lie within the current method. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details.

 

3.47      localloc – allocate space in the local dynamic memory pool

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 0F	localloc	Allocate space from the local memory pool.

 

Stack Transition:

…, size à …, address

Description:

The localloc instruction allocates size (type native unsigned int) bytes from the local dynamic memory pool and returns the address (a managed pointer, type &) of the first allocated byte. The block of memory returned is initialized to 0 only if the initialize flag on the method is true (see Partition I_alink_partitionI). The area of memory is newly allocated. When the current method returns the local memory pool is available for reuse.

Address is aligned so that any built-in data type can be stored there using the stind instructions and loaded using the ldind instructions.

The localloc instruction cannot occur within an exception block: filter, catch, finally, or fault

Exceptions:

StackOverflowException is thrown if there is insufficient memory to service the request.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL requires that the evaluation stack be empty, apart from the size item. This instruction is never verifiable.

 

3.48      mul - multiply values

Format	Assembly Format	Description
5A	mul	Multiply values

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The mul instruction multiplies value1 by value2 and pushes the result on the stack. Integral operations silently truncate the upper bits on overflow (see mul.ovf).

For floating-point types, 0 * infinity = NaN.

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data types are encapsulated in Table 2: Binary Numeric Operations_Table2_BinaryNumbericOperations.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

See Table 2: Binary Numeric Operations_Table2_BinaryNumbericOperations.

 

3.49      mul.ovf.<type> - multiply integer values with overflow check

Format	Assembly Format	Description
D8	mul.ovf	Multiply signed integer values. Signed result must fit in same size
D9	mul.ovf.un	Multiply unsigned integer values. Unsigned result must fit in same size

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The mul.ovf instruction multiplies integers, value1 and value2, and pushes the result on the stack. An exception is thrown if the result will not fit in the result type.

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data types are encapsulated in Table 7: Overflow Arithmetic Operations_Table7_OverflowArithmeticOperations.

Exceptions:

OverflowException is thrown if the result can not be represented in the result type.

Verifiability:

See Table 8: Conversion Operations_Table8_ConversionOperations.

 

3.50      neg - negate

Format	Assembly Format	Description
65	neg	Negate value

 

Stack Transition:

…, value à …, result

Description:

The neg instruction negates value and pushes the result on top of the stack. The return type is the same as the operand type.

Negation of integral values is standard twos complement negation. In particular, negating the most negative number (which does not have a positive counterpart) yields the most negative number. To detect this overflow use the sub.ovf instruction instead (i.e. subtract from 0).

Negating a floating-point number cannot overflow; negating NaN returns NaN.

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data types are encapsulated in Table 3: Unary Numeric Operations_Table3_UnaryNumericOperations.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

See Table 3: Unary Numeric Operations_Table3_UnaryNumericOperations.

 

3.51      nop – no operation

Format	Assembly Format	Description
00	nop	Do nothing

 

Stack Transition:

…, à …,

Description:

The nop operation does nothing. It is intended to fill in space if bytecodes are patched.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

The nop instruction is always verifiable.

 

3.52      not - bitwise complement

Format	Assembly Format	Description
66	not	Bitwise complement

 

Stack Transition:

…, value à …, result

Description:

Compute the bitwise complement of the integer value on top of the stack and leave the result on top of the stack. The return type is the same as the operand type.

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type is encapsulated in Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

See Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

 

3.53      or - bitwise OR

Format	Instruction	Description
60	or	Bitwise OR of two integer values, returns an integer.

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The or instruction computes the bitwise OR of the top two values on the stack and leaves the result on the stack.

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type is encapsulated in Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

See Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

 

3.54      pop – remove the top element of the stack

Format	Assembly Format	Description
26	pop	pop a value from the stack

 

Stack Transition:

…, value à …

Description:

The pop instruction removes the top element from the stack.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

No additional requirements.

 

3.55      rem - compute remainder

Format	Assembly Format	Description
5D	rem	Remainder of dividing value1 by value2

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type is encapsulated in Table 2: Binary Numeric Operations_Table2_BinaryNumbericOperations.

For integer operands

result = value1 rem value2 satisfies the following conditions:

 result = value1 – value2×(value1 div value2), and

 0 ≤ |result| < |value2|, and

 sign(result) = sign(value1),

where div is the division instruction, which truncates towards zero.

The rem instruction computes result and pushes it on the stack.

For floating-point operands

rem is defined is defined similarly, except that, if value2 is zero or value1 is infinity the result is NaN. If value2 is infinity, the result is value1 (negated for –infinity). This definition is different from the one for floating-point remainder in the IEC 60559:1989 Standard. That Standard specifies that value1 div value2 is the nearest integer instead of truncating towards zero. System.Math.IEEERemainder (see Partition IV_alink_partitionIV) provides the IEC 60559:1989 behavior.

Exceptions:

Integral operations throw DivideByZeroException if value2 is zero.

Exceptions:

Integral operations throw DivideByZeroException if value2 is zero.

Example:

+10 rem +6        is 4   (+10 div +6 = 1)

+10 rem -6        is 4   (+10 div -6 = -1)

-10 rem +6        is -4  (-10 div +6 = -1)

-10 rem -6        is -4  (-10 div -6 = 1)

For the various floating-point values of 10.0 and 6.0, rem gives the same values; System.Math.IEEERemainder, however, gives the following values.

System.Math.IEEERemainder(+10.0,+6.0) is -2 (+10.0 div +6.0 =  1.666…7)

System.Math.IEEERemainder(+10.0,-6.0) is -2 (+10.0 div -6.0 = -1.666…7)

System.Math.IEEERemainder(-10.0,+6.0) is  2 (-10.0 div +6.0 = -1.666…7)

System.Math.IEEERemainder(-10.0,-6.0) is  2 (-10.0 div -6.0 = 1.666…7)

Verifiability:

See Table 2: Binary Numeric Operations_Table2_BinaryNumbericOperations.

 

3.56      rem.un - compute integer remainder, unsigned

Format	Assembly Format	Description
5E	rem.un	Remainder of unsigned dividing value1 by value2

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

result = value1 rem.un value2 satisfies the following conditions:

 result = value1 – value2×(value1 div.un value2), and

 0 ≤ result < value2,

where div.un is the unsigned division instruction.. The rem.un instruction computes result and pushes it on the stack. Rem.un treats its arguments as unsigned integers, while rem treats them as signed integers. Rem.un is unspecified for floating-point numbers.

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type are encapsulated in Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

Exceptions:

Integral operations throw DivideByZeroException if value2 is zero.

Example:

+5 rem.un +3      is 2                 (+5 div.un +3 = 1)

+5 rem.un -3      is 5                 (+5 div.un -3 = 0)

-5 rem.un +3      is 2                 ( -5 div.un +3 = 1431655763 or 0x55555553)

-5 rem.un -3      is -5 or 0xfffffffb        ( -5 div.un -3 = 0)

Verifiability:

See Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

 

3.57      ret – return from method

Format	Assembly Format	Description
2A	Ret	Return from method, possibly returning a value

 

Stack Transition:

 retVal on callee evaluation stack (not always present) à

…, retVal on caller evaluation stack (not always present)

Description:

Return from the current method. The return type, if any, of the current method determines the type of value to be fetched from the top of the stack and copied onto the stack of the method that called the current method. The evaluation stack for the current method must be empty except for the value to be returned.

The ret instruction cannot be used to transfer control out of a try, filter, catch, or finally block. From within a try or catch, use the leave instruction with a destination of a ret instruction that is outside all enclosing exception blocks. Because the filter and finally blocks are logically part of exception handling, not the method in which their code is embedded, correctly generated CIL does not perform a method return from within a filter or finally. See Partition I_alink_partitionI.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL obeys the control constraints describe above. Verification requires that the type of retVal is compatible with the declared return type of the current method.

 

3.58      shl - shift integer left

Format	Assembly Format	Description
62	Shl	Shift an integer to the left (shifting in zeros)

 

Stack Transition:

…, value, shiftAmount à …, result

Description:

The shl instruction shifts value (int32, int64 or native int) left by the number of bits specified by shiftAmount. shiftAmount is of type int32, int64 or native int. The return value is unspecified if shiftAmount is greater than or equal to the size of value. See Table 6 : Shift Operations_Table6_ShiftOperations for details of which operand types are allowed, and their corresponding result type.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

See Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

 

3.59      shr - shift integer right

Format	Assembly Format	Description
63	Shr	Shift an integer right, (shift in sign), return an integer

 

Stack Transition:

…, value, shiftAmount à …, result

Description:

The shr instruction shifts value (int32, int64 or native int) right by the number of bits specified by shiftAmount. shiftAmount is of type int32, int64 or native int. The return value is unspecified if shiftAmount is greater than or equal to the width of value. shr replicates the high order bit on each shift, preserving the sign of the original value in the result. See Table 6 : Shift Operations_Table6_ShiftOperations for details of which operand types are allowed, and their corresponding result type.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

See Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

 

3.60      shr.un - shift integer right, unsigned

Format	Assembly Format	Description
64	shr.un	Shift an integer right, (shift in zero), return an integer

 

Stack Transition:

…, value, shiftAmount à …, result

Description:

The shr.un instruction shifts value (int32, int 64 or native int) right by the number of bits specified by shiftAmount. shiftAmount is of type int32 or native int. The return value is unspecified if shiftAmount is greater than or equal to the width of value. Shr.un inserts a zero bit on each shift. See Table 6 : Shift Operations_Table6_ShiftOperations for details of which operand types are allowed, and their corresponding result type.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

See Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

 

3.61      starg.<length> - store a value in an argument slot

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 0B <unsigned int16>	starg num	Store a value to the argument numbered num
10 <unsigned int8>	starg.s num	Store a value to the argument numbered num, short form

 

Stack Transition:

… value à …,

Description:

The starg num instruction pops a value from the stack and places it in argument slot num (see Partition I_alink_partitionI). The type of the value must match the type of the argument, as specified in the current method’s signature. The starg.s instruction provides an efficient encoding for use with the first 256 arguments.

For procedures that take a variable argument list, the starg instructions can be used only for the initial fixed arguments, not those in the variable part of the signature.

Storing into arguments that hold an integer value smaller than 4 bytes long truncates the value as it moves from the stack to the argument. Floating-point values are rounded from their native size (type F) to the size associated with the argument.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL requires that num is a valid argument slot.

Verification also checks that the verification type of value matches the type of the argument, as specified in the current method’s signature (verification types are less detailed than CLI types).

 

3.62      stind.<type> - store value indirect from stack

Format	Assembly Format	Description
52	stind.i1	Store value of type int8 into memory at address
53	stind.i2	Store value of type int16 into memory at address
54	stind.i4	Store value of type int32 into memory at address
55	stind.i8	Store value of type int64 into memory at address
56	stind.r4	Store value of type float32 into memory at address
57	stind.r8	Store value of type float64 into memory at address
DF	stind.i	Store value of type native int into memory at address
51	stind.ref	Store value of type object ref (type O) into memory at address

 

Stack Transition:

…, addr, val à …

Description:

The stind instruction stores a value val at address addr (an unmanaged pointer, type native int, or managed pointer, type &). The address specified by addr must be aligned to the natural size of val or a NullReferenceException may occur (but see the unaligned. prefix instruction). The results of all CIL instructions that return addresses (e.g. ldloca and ldarga) are safely aligned. For datatypes larger than 1 byte, the byte ordering is dependent on the target CPU. Code that depends on byte ordering may not run on all platforms.

Type safe operation requires that the stind instruction be used in a manner consistent with the type of the pointer.

The operation of the stind instruction may be altered by an immediately preceding volatile. or unaligned. prefix instruction.

Exceptions:

NullReferenceException is thrown if addr is not naturally aligned for the argument type implied by the instruction suffix

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that addr be a pointer whose type is known and is assignment compatible with that of val.

 

3.63      stloc - pop value from stack to local variable

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 0E <unsigned int16>	stloc indx	Pop value from stack into local variable indx.
13 <unsigned int8>	stloc.s indx	Pop value from stack into local variable indx, short form.
0A	stloc.0	Pop value from stack into local variable 0.
0B	stloc.1	Pop value from stack into local variable 1.
0C	stloc.2	Pop value from stack into local variable 2.
0D	stloc.3	Pop value from stack into local variable 3.

 

Stack Transition:

…, value à …

Description:

The stloc indx instruction pops the top value off the evalution stack and moves it into local variable number indx (see Partition I_alink_partitionI), where local variables are numbered 0 onwards. The type of value must match the type of the local variable as specified in the current method’s locals signature. The stloc.0, stloc.1, stloc.2, and stloc.3 instructions provide an efficient encoding for the first four local variables; the stloc.s instruction provides an efficient encoding for local variables 4 through 255.

Storing into locals that hold an integer value smaller than 4 bytes long truncates the value as it moves from the stack to the local variable. Floating-point values are rounded from their native size (type F) to the size associated with the argument.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL requires that indx is a valid local index. For the stloc indx instruction, indx must lie in the range 0 to 65534 inclusive (specifically, 65535 is not valid)

Verification also checks that the verification type of value matches the type of the local, as specified in the current method’s locals signature.

 

3.64      sub - subtract numeric values

Format	Assembly Format	Description
59	sub	Subtract value2 from value1, returning a new value

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The sub instruction subtracts value2 from value1 and pushes the result on the stack. Overflow is not detected for the integral operations (see sub.ovf); for floating-point operands, sub returns +inf on positive overflow, -inf on negative overflow, and zero on floating-point underflow.

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type is encapsulated in Table 2: Binary Numeric Operations_Table2_BinaryNumbericOperations.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

See Table2: Binary Numeric Operations_Table2_BinaryNumbericOperations.

 

3.65      sub.ovf.<type> - subtract integer values, checking for overflow

Format	Assembly Format	Description
DA	sub.ovf	Subtract native int from an native int. Signed result must fit in same size
DB	sub.ovf.un	Subtract native unsigned int from a native unsigned int. Unsigned result must fit in same size

 

Stack Transition:

…, value1, value2 à …, result

Description:

The sub.ovf instruction subtracts value2 from value1 and pushes the result on the stack. The type of the values and the return type is specified by the instruction. An exception is thrown if the result does not fit in the result type.

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type is encapsulated in Table 7: Overflow Arithmetic Operations_Table7_OverflowArithmeticOperations.

Exceptions:

OverflowException is thrown if the result can not be represented in the result type.

Verifiability:

See Table 7: Overflow Arithmetic Operations_Table7_OverflowArithmeticOperations.

 

3.66      switch – table switch on value

Format	Assembly Format	Description
45 <unsigned int32> <int32>… <int32>	switch ( t1, t2 … tn )	jump to one of n values

 

Stack Transition:

…, value à …,

Description:

The switch instruction implements a jump table. The format of the instruction is an unsigned int32 representing the number of targets N, followed by N int32 values specifying jump targets: these targets are represented as offsets (positive or negative) from the beginning of the instruction following this switch instruction.

The switch instruction pops value off the stack and compares it, as an unsigned integer, to N. If value is less than N, execution is transferred to the value’th target, where targets are numbered from 0 (ie, a value of 0 takes the first target, a value of 1 takes the second target, etc). If value is not less than N, execution continues at the next instruction (fall through).

If the target instruction has one or more prefix codes, control can only be transferred to the first of these prefixes.

Control transfers into and out of try, catch, filter, and finally blocks cannot be performed by this instruction. (Such transfers are severely restricted and must use the leave instruction instead; see Partition I_alink_partitionI for details).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL obeys the control transfer constraints listed above. In addition, verification requires the type-consistency of the stack, locals and arguments for every possible way of reaching all destination instructions. See Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable for more details.

 

3.67      xor - bitwise XOR

Format	Assembly Format	Description
61	xor	Bitwise XOR of integer values, returns an integer

 

Stack Transition:

..., value1, value2 à ..., result

Description:

The xor instruction computes the bitwise XOR of the top two values on the stack and leaves the result on the stack.

The acceptable operand types and their corresponding result data type is encapsulated in Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

See Table 5: Integer Operations_Table5_IntegerOperations.

4         Object Model Instructions

The instructions described in the base instruction set are independent of the object model being executed. Those instructions correspond closely to what would be found on a real CPU. The object model instructions are less built-in than the base instructions in the sense that they could be built out of the base instructions and calls to the underlying operating system.

 

4.1         box – convert value type to object reference

Format	Assembly Format	Description
8C <T>	box valTypeTok	Convert valueType to a true object reference

 

Stack Transition:

…, valueType à …, obj

Description:

A value type has two separate representations (see Partition I_alink_partitionI) within the CLI:

·              A ‘raw’ form used when a value type is embedded within another object or on the stack.

·              A ‘boxed’ form, where the data in the value type is wrapped (boxed) into an object so it can exist as an independent entity.

The box instruction converts the ‘raw’ valueType (an unboxed value type) into an instance of type Object (of type O). This is accomplished by creating a new object and copying the data from valueType into the newly allocated object. ValTypeTok is a metadata token (a typeref or typedef) indicating the type of valueType (See Partition II_alink_partitionII)

Exceptions:

OutOfMemoryException is thrown if there is insufficient memory to satisfy the request.

TypeLoadException is thrown if class cannot be found. This is typically detected when CIL is converted to native code rather than at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that valueType is of the correct value type, and that valTypeTok is a typeref or typedef metadata token for that value type.

 

4.2         callvirt – call a method associated, at runtime, with an object

Format	Assembly Format	Description
6F <T>	callvirt method	Call a method associated with obj

 

Stack Transition:

…, obj, arg1, … argN à …, returnVal (not always returned)

Description:

The callvirt instruction calls a late-bound method on an object. That is, the method is chosen based on the runtime type of obj rather than the compile-time class visible in the method metadata token. Callvirt can be used to call both virtual and instance methods. See Partition I_alink_partitionI for a detailed description of the CIL calling sequence. The callvirt instruction may be immediately preceded by a tail. prefix to specify that the current stack frame should be released before transferring control. If the call would transfer control to a method of higher trust than the original method the stack frame will not be released.

[A callee of “higher trust” is defined as one whose permission grant-set is a strict superset of the grant-set of the caller]

method is a metadata token (a methoddef or methodref; see Partition II_alink_partitionII) that provides the name, class and signature of the method to call. In more detail, callvirt can be thought of as follows. Associated with obj is the class of which it is an instance. If obj’s class defines a non-static method that matches the indicated method name and signature, this method is called. Otherwise all classes in the superclass chain of obj’s class are checked in order. It is an error if no method is found.

Callvirt pops the object and the arguments off the evaluation stack before calling the method. If the method has a return value, it is pushed on the stack upon method completion. On the callee side, the obj parameter is accessed as argument 0, arg1 as argument 1 etc.

The arguments are placed on the stack in left-to-right order. That is, the first argument is computed and placed on the stack, then the second argument, etc. The this pointer (always required for callvirt) must be pushed before any of the user-visible arguments. The signature carried in the metadata does not contain an entry in the parameter list for the this pointer, but uses a bit (called HASTHIS) to indiciate whether the method requires passing the this pointer (see Partition II_alink_partitionII)

Note that a virtual method may also be called using the call instruction.

Exceptions:

MissingMethodException is thrown if a non-static method with the indicated name and signature could not be found in obj’s class or any of its superclasses. This is typically detected when CIL is converted to native code, rather than at runtime.

NullReferenceException is thrown if obj is null.

SecurityException is thrown if system security does not grant the caller access to the called method. The security check may occur when the CIL is converted to native code rather than at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that the destination method exists and the values on the stack correspond to the types of the parameters of the method being called.

In its typical use, callvirt is verifiable if (a) the above restrictions are met, (b) the verification type of obj is consistent with the method being called, (c) the verification types of the arguments on the stack are consistent with the types expected by the method call, and (d) the method is accessible from the callsite. A callvirt annotated by tail. has additional considerations – see Section 1.5_1.5_OperandTypeTable.

 

4.3         castclass – cast an object to a class

Format	Assembly Format	Description
74 <T>	castclass class	Cast obj to class

 

Stack Transition:

…, obj à …, obj2

Description:

The castclass instruction attempts to cast obj (an O) to the class. Class is a metadata token (a typeref or typedef_cor_metadata), indicating the desired class. If the class of the object on the top of the stack does not implement class (if class is an interface), and is not a subclass of class (if class is a regular class), then an InvalidCastException is thrown.

Note that:

1.             Arrays inherit from System.Array

2.             If Foo can be cast to Bar, then Foo[] can be cast to Bar[]

3.             For the purposes of 2., enums are treated as their undertlying type: thus E1[] can cast to E2[] if E1 and E2 share an underlying type

If obj is null, castclass succeeds and returns null. This behavior differs from isInst.

Exceptions:

InvalidCastException is thrown if obj cannot be cast to class.

TypeLoadException is thrown if class cannot be found. This is typically detected when CIL is converted to native code rather than at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that class is a valid TypeRef or TypeDef token, and that obj is always either null or an object reference.

 

4.4         cpobj - copy a value type

Format	Assembly Format	Description
70 <T>	Cpobj classTok	Copy a value type from srcValObj to destValObj

 

Stack Transition:

…, destValObj, srcValObj à …,

Description:

The cpobj instruction copies the value type located at the address specified by srcValObj (an unmanaged pointer, native int, or a managed pointer, &) to the address specified by destValObj (also a pointer). Behavior is unspecified if srcValObj and dstValObj are not pointers to instances of the class represented by classTok (a typeref or typedef_cor_metadata), or if classTok does not represent a value type.

Exceptions:

NullReferenceException may be thrown if an invalid address is detected.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that classTok is a valid TypeRef or TypeDef token for a value type, as well as that srcValObj and destValObj are both pointers to locations of that type.

Verification requires, in addition, that srcValObj and destValObj are both managed pointers (not unmanaged pointers).

 

4.5         initobj - initialize a value type

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 15 <T>	initobj classTok	Initialize a value type

 

Stack Transition:

…,addrOfValObj à …,

Description:

The initobj instruction initializes all the fields of the object represented by the address addrOfValObj (of type native int, or &) to null or a 0 of the appropriate built-in type. After this method is called, the instance is ready for the constructor method to be called. Behavior is unspecified if either addrOfValObj is not a pointer to an instance of the class represented by classTok (a typeref or typedef; see Partition II_alink_partitionII), or classTok does not represent a value type.

Notice that, unlike newobj, the constructor method is not called by initobj. Initobj is intended for initializing value types, while newobj is used to allocate and initialize objects.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that classTok is a valid typeref or typedef token specifying a value type, and that valObj is a managed pointer to an instance of that value type.

 

4.6         isinst – test if an object is an instance of a class or interface

Format	Assembly Format	Description
75 <T>	isinst class	test if obj is an instance of class, returning NULL or an instance of that class or interface

 

Stack Transition:

…, obj à …, result

Description:

The isinst instruction tests whether obj (type O) is an instance of class. Class is a metadata token (a typeref or typedef see Partition II_alink_partitionII) indicating the desired class. If the class of the object on the top of the stack implements class (if class is an interface) or is a subclass of class (if class is a regular class), then it is cast to the type class and the result is pushed on the stack, exactly as though castclass had been called. Otherwise NULL is pushed on the stack. If obj is NULL, isinst returns NULL.

Note that:

1.             Arrays inherit from System.Array

2.             If Foo can be cast to Bar, then Foo[] can be cast to Bar[]

3.             For the purposes of 2., enums are treated as their undertlying type: thus E1[] can cast to E2[] if E1 and E2 share an underlying type

Exceptions:

TypeLoadException is thrown if class cannot be found. This is typically detected when CIL is converted to native code rather than at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that class is a valid typeref or typedef token indicating a class, and that obj is always either null or an object reference

 

4.7         ldelem.<type> – load an element of an array

Format	Assembly Format	Description
90	ldelem.i1	Load the element with type int8 at index onto the top of the stack as an int32
92	ldelem.i2	Load the element with type int16 at index onto the top of the stack as an int32
94	ldelem.i4	Load the element with type int32 at index onto the top of the stack as an int32
96	ldelem.i8	Load the element with type int64 at index onto the top of the stack as an int64
91	ldelem.u1	Load the element with type unsigned int8 at index onto the top of the stack as an int32
93	ldelem.u2	Load the element with type unsigned int16 at index onto the top of the stack as an int32
95	ldelem.u4	Load the element with type unsigned int32 at index onto the top of the stack as an int32 (alias for ldelem.i4)
96	ldelem.u8	Load the element with type unsigned int64 at index onto the top of the stack as an int64 (alias for ldelem.i8)
98	ldelem.r4	Load the element with type float32 at index onto the top of the stack as an F
99	ldelem.r8	Load the element with type float64 at index onto the top of the stack as an F
97	ldelem.i	Load the element with type native int at index onto the top of the stack as an native int
9A	ldelem.ref	Load the element of type object, at index onto the top of the stack as an O

 

Stack Transition:

…, array, index à …, value

Description:

The ldelem instruction loads the value of the element with index index (of type native int) in the zero-based one-dimensional array array and places it on the top of the stack. Arrays are objects and hence represented by a value of type O. The return value is indicated by the instruction.

For one-dimensional arrays that aren’t zero-based and for multidimensional arrays, the array class provides a Get method.

Note that integer values of less than 4 bytes are extended to int32 (not native int) when they are loaded onto the evaluation stack. Floating-point values are converted to F type when loaded onto the evaluation stack.

Exceptions:

NullReferenceException is thrown if array is null.

IndexOutOfRangeException is thrown if index is negative, or larger than the bound of array.

ArrayTypeMismatchException is thrown if array doesn’t hold elements of the required type.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL code requires that array is either null or a zero-based, one-dimensional array whose declared element type matches exactly the type for this particular instruction suffix (eg ldelem.r4 can only be applied to a zero-based, one dimensional array of float32’s)

 

4.8         ldelema – load address of an element of an array

Format	Assembly Format	Description
8F <T>	ldelema class	Load the address of element at index onto the top of the stack

 

Stack Transition:

…, array, index à …, address

Description:

The ldelema instruction loads the address of the element with index index (of type native int) in the zero-based one-dimensional array array (of element type class) and places it on the top of the stack. Arrays are objects and hence represented by a value of type O. The return address is a managed pointer (type &).

For one-dimensional arrays that aren’t zero-based and for multidimensional arrays, the array class provides a Address method.

Exceptions:

NullReferenceException is thrown if array is null.

IndexOutOfRangeException is thrown if index is negative, or larger than the bound of array.

ArrayTypeMismatchException is thrown if array doesn’t hold elements of the required type.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that class is a typeref or typedef token to a class, and that array is indeed always either null or a zero-based, one-dimensional array whose declared element type matches class exactly.

 

4.9         ldfld – load field of an object

Format	Assembly Format	Description
7B <T>	ldfld field	Push the value of field of object, or value type, obj, onto the stack

 

Stack Transition:

…, obj à …, value

Description:

The ldfld instruction pushes onto the stack the value of a field of obj. obj must be an object (type O), a managed pointer (type &), an unmanaged pointer (type native int), or an instance of a value type. The use of an unmanaged pointer is not permitted in verifiable code. field is a metadata token (a fieldref or fielddef see Partition II_alink_partitionII) that must refer to a field member. The return type is that associated with field. ldfld pops the object reference off the stack and pushes the value for the field in its place. The field may be either an instance field (in which case obj must not be null) or a static field.

The ldfld instruction may be preceded by either or both of the unaligned. and volatile. prefixes.

Exceptions:

NullReferenceException is thrown if obj is null and the field is not static.

MissingFieldException is thrown if field is not found in the metadata. This is typically checked when CIL is converted to native code, not at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that field is a valid token referring to a field, and that obj will always have a type compatible with that required for the lookup being performed. For verifiable code, obj may not be an unmanaged pointer.

 

4.10      ldflda – load field address

Format	Assembly Format	Description
7C <T>	ldflda field	Push the address of field of object obj on the stack

 

Stack Transition:

…, obj à …, address

Description:

The ldflda instruction pushes the address of a field of obj. obj is either an object, type O, a managed pointer, type &, or an unmanaged pointer, type native int. The use of an unmanaged pointer is not allowed in verifiable code. The value returned by ldflda is a managed pointer (type &) unless obj is an unmanaged pointer, in which case it is an unmanaged pointer (type native int).

field is a metadata token (a fieldref or fielddef; see Partition II_alink_partitionII) that must refer to a field member. The field may be either an instance field (in which case obj must not be null) or a static field.

Exceptions:

InvalidOperationException is thrown if the obj is not within the application domain from which it is being accessed. The address of a field that is not inside the accessing application domain cannot be loaded.

MissingFieldException is thrown if field is not found in the metadata. This is typically checked when CIL is converted to native code, not at runtime.

NullReferenceException is thrown if obj is null and the field isn’t static.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that field is a valid fieldref token and that obj will always have a type compatible with that required for the lookup being performed.

Note: Using ldflda to compute the address of a static, init-only field and then using the resulting pointer to modify that value outside the body of the class initializer may lead to unpredictable behavior. It cannot, however, compromise memory integrity or type safety so it is not tested by verification .

 

4.11      ldlen – load the length of an array

Format	Assembly Format	Description
8E	ldlen	push the length (of type native unsigned int) of array on the stack

 

Stack Transition:

…, array à …, length

Description:

The ldlen instruction pushes the number of elements of array (a zero-based, one-dimensional array) on the stack.

Arrays are objects and hence represented by a value of type O. The return value is a native unsigned  int.

Exceptions:

NullReferenceException is thrown if array is null.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that array is indeed always either null or a zero-based, one dimensional array.

 

4.12      ldobj - copy value type to the stack

Format	Assembly Format	Description
71 <T>	ldobj classTok	Copy instance of value type classTok to the stack.

 

Stack Transition:

…, addrOfValObj à …, valObj

Description:

The ldobj instruction copies the value pointed to by addrOfValObj (of type managed pointer, &, or unmanaged pointer, native unsigned  int) to the top of the stack. The number of bytes copied depends on the size of the class represented by classTok. ClassTok is a metadata token (a typeref or typedef; see Partition II_alink_partitionII) representing a value type.

It is unspecified what happens if addrOfValObj is not an instance of the class represented by ClassTok or if ClassTok does not represent a value type.

The operation of the ldobj instruction may be altered by an immediately preceding volatile. or unaligned. prefix instruction.

Exceptions:

TypeLoadException is thrown if class cannot be found. This is typically detected when CIL is converted to native code rather than at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that classTok is a metadata token representing a value type and that addrOfValObj is a pointer to a location containing a value of the type specified by classTok. Verifiable code additionally requires that addrOfValObj is a managed pointer of a matching type.

 

4.13      ldsfld – load static field of a class

Format	Assembly Format	Description
7E <T>	ldsfld field	Push the value of field on the stack

 

Stack Transition:

…, à …, value

Description:

The ldsfld instruction pushes the value of a static (shared among all instances of a class) field on the stack. field is a metadata token (a fieldref or fielddef; see Partition II_alink_partitionII) referring to a static field member. The return type is that associated with field.

The ldsfld instruction may have a volatile. prefix.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that field is a valid metadata token referring to a static field member.

 

4.14      ldsflda – load static field address

Format	Assembly Format	Description
7F <T>	ldsflda field	Push the address of the static field, field, on the stack

 

Stack Transition:

…, à …, address

Description:

The ldsflda instruction pushes the address (a managed pointer, type &, if field refers to a type whose memory is managed; otherwise an unmanaged pointer, type native int) of a static field on the stack. field is a metadata token (a fieldref or fielddef; see Partition II_alink_partitionII) referring to a static field member. (Note that field may be a static global with assigned RVA, in which case its memory is unmanaged; where RVA stands for Relative Virtual Address, the offset of the field from the base address at which its containing PE file is loaded into memory)

Exceptions:

MissingFieldException is thrown if field is not found in the metadata. This is typically checked when CIL is converted to native code, not at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that field is a valid metadata token referring to a static field member if field refers to a type whose memory is managed.

 

4.15      ldstr – load a literal string

Format	Assembly Format	Description
72 <T>	ldstr string	push a string object for the literal string

 

Stack Transition:

…, à …, string

Description:

The ldstr instruction pushes a new string object representing the literal stored in the metadata as string (that must be a string literal).

The ldstr instruction allocates memory and performs any format conversion required to convert from the form used in the file to the string format required at runtime. The CLI guarantees that the result of two ldstr instructions referring to two metadata tokens that have the same sequence of characters return precisely the same string object (a process known as “string interning”).

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL requires that mdToken is a valid string literal metadata token.

 

4.16      ldtoken - load the runtime representation of a metadata token

Format	Assembly Format	Description
D0 <T>	ldtoken token	Convert metadata token to its runtime representation

 

Stack Transition:

… à …, RuntimeHandle

Description:

The ldtoken instruction pushes a RuntimeHandle for the specified metadata token. The token must be one of:

A methoddef or methodref : pushes a RuntimeMethodHandle

A typedef or typeref : pushes a RuntimeTypeHandle

A fielddef or fieldref : pushes a RuntimeFieldHandle

The value pushed on the stack can be used in calls to Reflection methods in the system class library

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL requires that token describes a valid metadata token.

 

4.17      ldvirtftn - load a virtual method pointer

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 07 <T>	ldvirtftn mthd	Push address of virtual method mthd on the stack

 

Stack Transition:

… object à …, ftn

Description:

The ldvirtftn instruction pushes an unmanaged pointer (type native int) to the native code implementing the virtual method associated with object and described by the method reference mthd (a metadata token, either a methoddef or methodref; see Partition II_alink_partitionII) onto the stack. The value pushed can be called using the calli instruction if it references a managed method (or a stub that transitions from managed to unmanaged code).

The value returned points to native code using the calling convention specified by mthd. Thus a method pointer can be passed to unmanaged native code (e.g. as a callback routine) if that routine expects the corresponding calling convention. Note that the address computed by this instruction may be to a thunk produced specially for this purpose (for example, to re-enter the CLI when a native version of the method isn’t available)

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that mthd is a valid methoddef or methodref token. Also that mthd references a non-static method that is defined for object. Verification tracks the type of the value pushed in more detail than the “native int” type, remembering that it is a method pointer. Such a method pointer can then be used in verified code with calli or to construct a delegate.

 

4.18      mkrefany – push a typed reference on the stack

Format	Assembly Format	Description
C6 <T>	mkrefany class	push a typed reference to ptr of type class onto the stack

 

Stack Transition:

…, ptr à …, typedRef

Description:

The mkrefany instruction supports the passing of dynamically typed references. Ptr must be a pointer (type &, or native int) that holds the address of a piece of data. Class is the class token (a typeref or typedef; see Partition II_alink_partitionII) describing the type of ptr. Mkrefany pushes a typed reference on the stack, that is an opaque descriptor of ptr and class. The only legal operation on a typed reference on the stack is to pass it to a method that requires a typed reference as a parameter. The callee can then use the refanytype and refanyval instructions to retrieve the type (class) and address (ptr) respectively.

Exceptions:

TypeLoadException is thrown if class cannot be found. This is typically detected when CIL is converted to native code rather than at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that class is a valid typeref or typedef token describing some type and that ptr is a pointer to exactly that type. Verification additionally requires that ptr be a managed pointer. Verification will fail if it cannot deduce that ptr is a pointer to an instance of class.

 

4.19      newarr – create a zero-based, one-dimensional array

Format	Assembly Format	Description
8D <T>	newarr etype	create a new array with elements of type etype

 

Stack Transition:

…, numElems à …, array

Description:

The newarr instruction pushes a reference to a new zero-based, one-dimensional array whose elements are of type elemtype, a metadata token (a typeref or typedef; see Partition II_alink_partitionII). numElems (of type native int) specifies the number of elements in the array. Valid array indexes are 0 ≤ index < numElems. The elements of an array can be any type, including value types.

Zero-based, one-dimensional arrays of numbers are created using a metadata token referencing the appropriate value type (System.Int32, etc.). Elements of the array are initialized to 0 of the appropriate type.

One-dimensional arrays that aren’t zero-based and multidimensional arrays are created using newobj rather than newarr. More commonly, they are created using the methods of System.Array class in the Base Framework.

Exceptions:

OutOfMemoryException is thrown if there is insufficient memory to satisfy the request.

OverflowException is thrown if numElems is < 0

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that etype is a valid typeref or typedef token.

 

4.20      newobj – create a new object

Format	Assembly Format	Description
73 <T>	newobj ctor	allocate an uninitialized object or value type and call ctor

 

Stack Transition:

…, arg1, … argN à …, obj

Description:

The newobj instruction creates a new object or a new instance of a value type. Ctor is a metadata token (a methodref or methodef that must be marked as a constructor; see Partition II_alink_partitionII) that indicates the name, class and signature of the constructor to call. If a constructor exactly matching the indicated name, class and signature cannot be found, MissingMethodException is thrown.

The newobj instruction allocates a new instance of the class associated with constructor and initializes all the fields in the new instance to 0 (of the proper type) or null as appropriate. It then calls the constructor with the given arguments along with the newly created instance. After the constructor has been called, the now initialized object reference is pushed on the stack.

From the constructor’s point of view, the uninitialized object is argument 0 and the other arguments passed to newobj follow in order.

All zero-based, one-dimensional arrays are created using newarr, not newobj. On the other hand, all other arrays (more than one dimension, or one-dimensional but not zero-based) are created using newobj.

Value types are not usually created using newobj. They are usually allocated either as arguments or local variables, using newarr (for zero-based, one-dimensional arrays), or as fields of objects. Once allocated, they are initialized using initobj. However, the newobj instruction can be used to create a new instance of a value type on the stack, that can then be passed as an argument, stored in a local, etc.

Exceptions:

OutOfMemoryException is thrown if there is insufficient memory to satisfy the request.

MissingMethodException is thrown if a constructor method with the indicated name, class and signature could not be found. This is typically detected when CIL is converted to native code, rather than at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that constructor is a valid methodref or methoddef token, and that the arguments on the stack are compatible with those expected by the constructor. Verification considers a delegate constructor as a special case, checking that the method pointer passed in as the second argument, of type native int, does indeed refer to a method of the correct type.

 

4.21      refanytype – load the type out of a typed reference

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 1D	Refanytype	Push the type token stored in a typed reference

 

Stack Transition:

…, TypedRef à …, type

Description:

Retrieves the type token embedded in TypedRef. See the mkrefany instruction.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that TypedRef is a valid typed reference (created by a previous call to mkrefany). The refanytype instruction is always verifiable.

 

4.22      refanyval – load the address out of a typed reference

Format	Assembly Format	Description
C2 <T>	refanyval type	Push the address stored in a typed reference

 

Stack Transition:

…, TypedRef à …, address

Description:

Retrieves the address (of type &) embedded in TypedRef. The type of reference in TypedRef must match the type specified by type (a metadata token, either a typedef or a typeref; see Partition II_alink_partitionII). See the mkrefany instruction.

Exceptions:

InvalidCastException is thrown if type is not identical to the type stored in the TypedRef (ie, the class supplied to the mkrefany instruction that constructed that TypedRef)

TypeLoadException is thrown if type cannot be found.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that TypedRef is a valid typed reference (created by a previous call to mkrefany). The refanyval instruction is always verifiable.

 

4.23      rethrow – rethrow the current exception

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 1A	rethrow	Rethrow the current exception

 

Stack Transition:

…, à …,

Description:

The rethrow instruction is only permitted within the body of a catch handler (see Partition I_alink_partitionI). It throws the same exception that was caught by this handler.

Exceptions:

The original exception is thrown.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL uses this instruction only within the body of a catch handler (not of any exception handlers embedded within that catch handler). If a rethrow occurs elsewhere, then an exception will be thrown, but precisely which exception is undefined

 

4.24      sizeof – load the size in bytes of a value type

Format	Assembly Format	Description
FE 1C <T>	sizeof valueType	Push the size, in bytes, of a value type as a unsigned int32

 

Stack Transition:

…, à …, size (4 bytes, unsigned)

Description:

Returns the size, in bytes, of a value type. ValueType must be a metadata token (a typeref or typedef; see Partition II_alink_partitionII) that specifies a value type.

Exceptions:

None.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that valueType is a typeref or typedef referring to a value type. It is always verificable.

 

4.25      stelem.<type> – store an element of an array

Format	Assembly Format	Description
9C	stelem.i1	Replace array element at index with the int8 value on the stack
9D	stelem.i2	Replace array element at index with the int16 value on the stack
9E	stelem.i4	Replace array element at index with the int32 value on the stack
9F	stelem.i8	Replace array element at index with the int64 value on the stack
A0	stelem.r4	Replace array element at index with the float32 value on the stack
A1	stelem.r8	Replace array element at index with the float64 value on the stack
9B	stelem.i	Replace array element at index with the i value on the stack
A2	stelem.ref	Replace array element at index with the ref value on the stack

 

Stack Transition:

…, array, index, value à …,

Description:

The stelem instruction replaces the value of the element with zero-based index index (of type native int) in the one-dimensional array array with value. Arrays are objects and hence represented by a value of type O.

Note that stelem.ref implicitly casts value to the element type of array before assigning the value to the array element. This cast can fail, even for verified code. Thus the stelem.ref instruction may throw the InvalidCastException.

For one-dimensional arrays that aren’t zero-based and for multidimensional arrays, the array class provides a StoreElement method.

Exceptions:

NullReferenceException is thrown if array is null.

IndexOutOfRangeException is thrown if index is negative, or larger than the bound of array.

ArrayTypeMismatchException is thrown if array doesn’t hold elements of the required type.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL requires that array be a zero-based, one-dimensional array whose declared element type matches exactly the type for this particular instruction suffix (eg stelem.r4 can only be applied to a zero-based, one dimensional array of float32’s); also that index lies within the bounds of array

 

4.26      stfld – store into a field of an object

Format	Assembly Format	Description
7D <T>	stfld field	Replace the value of field of the object obj with val

 

Stack Transition:

…, obj, value à …,

Description:

The stfld instruction replaces the value of a field of an obj (an O) or via a pointer (type native int, or &) with value. field is a metadata token (a fieldref or fielddef; see Partition II_alink_partitionII) that refers to a field member reference. stfld pops the value and the object reference off the stack and updates the object.

The stfld instruction may have a prefix of either or both of unaligned. and volatile..

Exceptions:

NullReferenceException is thrown if obj is null and the field isn’t static.

MissingFieldException is thrown if field is not found in the metadata. This is typically checked when CIL is converted to native code, not at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that field is a valid token referring to a field, and that obj and value will always have types appropriate for the assignment being performed. For verifiable code, obj may not be an unmanaged pointer.

 

4.27      stobj - store a value type from the stack into memory

Format	Assembly Format	Description
81 <T>	stobj classTok	Store a value of type classTok from the stack into memory

 

Stack Transition:

…, addr, valObj à …,

Description:

The stobj instruction copies the value type valObj into the address specified by addr (a pointer of type native int, or &). The number of bytes copied depends on the size of the class represented by classTok. ClassTok is a metadata token (a typeref or typedef; see Partition II_alink_partitionII) representing a value type.

It is unspecified what happens if valObj is not an instance of the class represented by ClassTok or if classTok does not represent a value type.

The operation of the stobj instruction may be altered by an immediately preceding volatile. or unaligned. prefix instruction.

Exceptions:

TypeLoadException is thrown if class cannot be found. This is typically detected when CIL is converted to native code rather than at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that classTok is a metadata token representing a value type and that valObj is a pointer to a location containing an initialized value of the type specified by classTok. In addition, verifiable code requires that valObj be a managed pointer.

 

4.28      stsfld – store a static field of a class

Format	Assembly Format	Description
80 <T>	stsfld field	Replace the value of field with val

 

Stack Transition:

…, val à …,

Description:

The stsfld instruction replaces the value of a static field with a value from the stack. field is a metadata token (a fieldref or fielddef; see Partition II_alink_partitionII) that must refer to a static field member. Stsfld pops the value off the stack and updates the static field with that value.

The stsfld instruction may be prefixed by volatile..

Exceptions:

MissingFieldException is thrown if field is not found in the metadata. This is typically checked when CIL is converted to native code, not at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that field is a valid token referring to a static field, and that value will always have a type appropriate for the assignment being performed.

 

4.29      throw – throw an exception

Format	Assembly Format	Description
7A	throw	Throw an exception

 

Stack Transition:

…, object à …,

Description:

The throw instruction throws the exception object (type O) on the stack. For details of the exception mechanism, see Partition I_alink_partitionI.

Exceptions:

NullReferenceException is thrown if obj is null.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that class a valid TypeRef token indicating a class, and that obj is always either null or an object reference, i.e. of type O.

 

4.30      unbox – Convert boxed value type to its raw form

Format	Assembly Format	Description
79 <T>	unbox valuetype	Extract the value type data from obj, its boxed representation

 

Stack Transition:

…, obj à …, valueTypePtr

Description:

A value type has two separate representations (see Partition I_alink_partitionI) within the CLI:

·              A ‘raw’ form used when a value type is embedded within another object.

·              A ‘boxed’ form, where the data in the value type is wrapped (boxed) into an object so it can exist as an independent entity.

The unbox instruction converts obj (of type O), the boxed representation of a value type, to valueTypePtr (a managed pointer, type &), its unboxed form. Valuetype is a metadata token (a typeref or typedef) indicating the type of value type contained within obj. If obj is not a boxed instance of valuetype, or, if obj is a boxed enum and valuetype is not its underlying type, then this instruction will throw an InvalidCastException

Unlike box, which is required to make a copy of a value type for use in the object, unbox is not required to copy the value type from the object. Typically it simply computes the address of the value type that is already present inside of the boxed object.

Exceptions:

InvalidCastException is thrown if obj is not a boxed valuetype (or if obj is a boxed enum and valuetype is not its underlying type)

NullReferenceException is thrown if obj is null.

TypeLoadException is thrown if class cannot be found. This is typically detected when CIL is converted to native code rather than at runtime.

Verifiability:

Correct CIL ensures that valueType is a typeref or typedef metadata token for some value type, and that obj is always an object reference, i.e. of type O, and represents a boxed instance of a valuetype value type.